Environment

Possible Influence of Plant Clusters Mounted Next to Waters on the Water Quality
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Possible Influence of Plant Clusters Mounted Next to Waters on the Water Quality

Abstract

The eutrophication of natural waters is a common problem. Eutrophication describes the accumulation of nutrients (especially phosphorus and nitrogen compounds) which stimulates the growth of organisms (mainly phytoplankton). This results in a lack of oxygen and ultimately in the death of living beings in the water.

This study investigates the effect of stored plants next to natural waters on the eutrophication tendency. The results have shown that it is advisable to move the cut plants from the edge of the water quickly.

Keywords: eutrophication, biochemical oxygen demand, BOD5 test, urban water bodies, stored plants, plant juice

Introduction

Cut plants are often left on the banks of urban water bodies. We suspect that the outward-oozing plant liquid may affect the quality of the water, which can increase the eutrophication tendency. 1)Kalff, Jacob, Limnology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2001. 2)Martin, James, L. Hydro-Enviromental Analysis. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2013 3)Schönborn, Wilfried, Lehrbuch der Limnologie [Limnology]. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart, 2003. 4)Schwoerbel, Jürgen and Brendelberger. Heinz, Einführung in die Limnologie   [Limnology]. Heidelberg: Spektrum, 2005 5)Thienemann, Alfred, Die begriffliche Unterscheidung zwischen See, Weiher, Teich. – Rheinische Heimatpflege, Jg. 12 (½), Düsseldorf 1940 6)Wetzel, R.G. Limnology – Lake and River Ecosystems. London: Academic Press, 2001

Figure 1: Lake of Elfrath in Krefeld

Figure 1: Lake of Elfrath in Krefeld

Figure 2: Pond in the Sollbrüggenpark

Figure 2: Pond in the Sollbrüggenpark

Method

The plant juice running out from a pile of plants was studied with the help of the five-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) test. 7)Schönborn, Wilfried, Lehrbuch der Limnologie [Limnology]. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart, 2003. The BOD5 test determines the level of oxygen consumption within five days. The less oxygen consumed, the higher the water quality (or the less likely it is being burdened with organic substances). A high level of oxygen consumption is more likely to result in eutrophication and the death of the entire body of water.

The benefit of the BOD5 test is its indirect measure for the burden of water with bio-degradable organic substances. Decomposers which break down dead animals and plants at the bottom of a body of water consume a certain degree of oxygen, hence there is a correlation between organic matter build up and the oxygen consumed. 8)Schönborn, Wilfried, Lehrbuch der Limnologie [Limnology]. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart, 2003.The more the decomposers reduce organic substances, the more oxygen they will consume. 9)Schönborn, Wilfried, Lehrbuch der Limnologie [Limnology]. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart, 2003.10)Schwoerbel, Jürgen and Brendelberger. Heinz, Einführung in die Limnologie   [Limnology]. Heidelberg: Spektrum, 2005

Results and Discussion

As Figure 3 shows, the plant juice oozing out from each pile of plants (namely, piles of leaves, grass and algae) has high BOD5 values. For comparison, a BOD5 value of 10ml/g is the worst grade a body of water can be assigned. [6]

From this, we conclude that the juice running out from the pile of plants contains large amounts of organic materials. During degradation, lots of  oxygen is consumed by micro-organisms (decomposers). Therefore, the liquid of this plant could affect a neighbouring  water body negatively and increase the risk of eutrophication.

Figure 3: BOD5 values of various clusters of plants

Figure 3: BOD5 values of various clusters of plants

Furthermore, we have found that the BOD5 values of plant juice decrease with an increasing storage duration (Figure 4).

Figure 4: BOD5 values' dependency on storage duration

Figure 4: BOD5 values’ dependency on storage duration

We have been dealing with the question of whether the juice of plants will have a negative influence on a body of water. For this reason, we used fresh algae clusters which were piled up at the Lake of Elfrath as well as a pile of grass next to Sollbrüggenpark pond. 5  We measured and compared the following BOD5 values (Figure 5):

  • BOD5 values of plant juice running out from a pile of plants (blue column);
  • BOD5 values of the water next to the pile of plants where the plant juice had run into the water (orange column); and
  • BOD5 values of the water five metres away from the entry point where the water quality would not be affected by the juice of the plants (yellow column).
Figure 5: Actual influence of the pile of plants on the value of BOD5 in the water

Figure 5: Actual influence of the pile of plants on the value of BOD5 in the water

As Figure 5 shows, the algal mounds at the Lake of Elfrath have seemingly no effect on the value of BOD5 in the body of water. Both of the values measured in two locations in the water (at the edge of the pile, where the plant juice runs into the water, and a few meters away from the plant-liquid entry point) are approximately equal. However, the grass pile in Sollbrüggenpark seems to have an influence on the value of BOD5 in the water: the value at the edge of the pile is higher than at the measuring point several metres away.

One possible reason for this difference is the distinct nature of each water body. The Sollbrüggenpark is a small and flat pond which is neither moved nor mixed by the wind. The Lake of Elfrath is a large water body. The water of the lake is more or less constantly  in motion, swirled by the wind.

We probably noticed no effect in the Lake of Elfrath because our sample was constantly replenished by the fresh water currents.

Conclusions

Overall, we have found that a pile of vegetation right next to a water body could adversely affect its water quality and eutrophication tendency. However, a practical influence was only noted in a small pond (in Sollbrüggenpark) and not in a bigger lake (the Lake of Elfrath). Even if the expected impact is relatively small, it seems advisable not to store plant remains in close proximity to water bodies. The pile of plants should either be stored several meters away from the shore until its removal, or it should be removed immediately.

 

References   [ + ]

1. ↑ Kalff, Jacob, Limnology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2001.
2. ↑ Martin, James, L. Hydro-Enviromental Analysis. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2013
3, 7, 8, 9. ↑ Schönborn, Wilfried, Lehrbuch der Limnologie [Limnology]. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart, 2003.
4, 10. ↑ Schwoerbel, Jürgen and Brendelberger. Heinz, Einführung in die Limnologie   [Limnology]. Heidelberg: Spektrum, 2005
5. ↑ Thienemann, Alfred, Die begriffliche Unterscheidung zwischen See, Weiher, Teich. – Rheinische Heimatpflege, Jg. 12 (½), Düsseldorf 1940
6. ↑ Wetzel, R.G. Limnology – Lake and River Ecosystems. London: Academic Press, 2001
The Importance of Disinfection to Reduce Pathogen Spread in Agriculture
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The Importance of Disinfection to Reduce Pathogen Spread in Agriculture

Abstract

This paper investigates the importance of regular disinfection of farm equipment as part of an effective biosecurity system to reduce pathogen spread within an individual holding. By carrying out a laboratory investigation involving the growth of microorganisms from disinfected surfaces, the need for daily disinfection of high-risk areas is explored. The results of this experiment, which is used to model biosecurity in an agricultural setting, clearly illustrate the rapid increase in numbers of microorganisms present on a microscope slide after a period of only 24 hours following disinfection.

Introduction

Biosecurity in agriculture is a term used to describe a range of measures put in place to limit pathogen spread between livestock on individual holdings as well as across the country.  It is often recognised for the key role it plays in reducing the transmission of disease between commercial animals. Biosecurity measures are commonly divided into three main areas: selection of stock for introduction, disinfection and cleansing (sanitation), and external sources.

Despite the central position that biosecurity plays in animal health and welfare, recommendations are rarely formalised as legal requirements. The exception is during outbreaks of a notifiable disease 1)APHA. Defra approved disinfectant: when and how to use it. July 2014 a. https://www.gov.uk/guidance/defra-approved-disinfectant-when-and-how-to-use-it, such as those involving foot and mouth disease or an incidence  of bovine tuberculosis. As a result, many farmers will develop their own routines which vary greatly in both frequency and scale.

In the case of the sanitation, opinions regarding the necessity of regular disinfection of farm equipment differ enormously with many farmers choosing to avoid the economic implications of daily cleansing and instead disinfecting farm equipment on a much less frequent basis.

There is no widely accepted timescale recommended for the disinfection of potentially high risk areas for pathogen spread within an individual group of animals such as water troughs and hay racks that are in almost constant contact with the livestock. Although regular cleansing is encouraged, it is not known for certain if the benefits of daily disinfection are sufficiently greater than a weekly routine when dealing with equipment that is used solely within one holding. 2)APHA. Notifiable diseases in animals. August 2014 b. https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/notifiable-diseases-in-animals

Literature Review

The APHA (Animal and Plant Health Agency, UK) has issued legal requirements for the use of a disinfectant approved by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) for the cleansing of all livestock vehicles visiting markets or moving between holdings in order to reduce the spread of pathogens between farms 3)APHA. Defra approved disinfectant: when and how to use it. July 2014 a. https://www.gov.uk/guidance/defra-approved-disinfectant-when-and-how-to-use-it.

However, within an individual holding, disinfection guidelines are much less clear. The official advice offered by the APHA is that a farmer should ‘clean and disinfect all buildings and equipment after use by livestock’ 4)APHA. Disease prevention for livestock and poultry keepers. September 2012. https://www.gov.uk/guidance/disease-prevention-for-livestock-farmers#buildings-equipment-and-vehicles. No recommendation is made for the ideal frequency of disinfection appropriate for items in constant daily use.

Investigation

The aim of the investigation was to examine microorganism growth following disinfection in a laboratory situation. It was hoped that the experiment would be suitable to act as a model of different frequencies of sanitation routines that may be in place within an individual farm holding. This would enable conclusions to be drawn relating to the most appropriate frequency of disinfection for application in an agricultural setting.

Method

On the first day, the microscope slide labelled ‘three days’ was disinfected by wiping all surfaces with 5 ml of dettol antibacterial surface cleanser applied to a paper towel. The slide was then placed on a sterile tray which was positioned on the laboratory window sill. A control slide was also placed on the tray. This slide had not been disinfected and would be used for comparison when drawing conclusions from the investigation’s results. The next day, the process was repeated with the ‘two days’ slide and on day three with the slide labelled ‘one day’. The labelling corresponded to the time elapsed since disinfection when the swab was taken 24 hours later.

Before collecting the swabs from each slide, four plates of agar growth medium were prepared and labelled with the corresponding slide names as well as being divided into thirds. Using a fresh sterile cotton bud each time, a swab was taken from the centre of each slide and wiped across one third of the appropriately labelled agar plate. This process was repeated with a second and third swab from each slide which was wiped across the remaining thirds on each plate. Repetition of swab collection from each microscope slide would later enable the average number of microorganism colonies grown from each slide to be calculated and allow any anomalous results to be identified.

When transferring each swab to the agar plate, it was important that care was taken to open the petri dish lid as little as possible in order to prevent microorganisms in the air from contaminating the sample.

Each plate was sealed at four separate points using sticky tape. The four plates were then placed in an incubator at 25˚C for seven days. Although this is approximately 10˚C below the optimum temperature for microorganism growth and therefore required a longer incubation period, a temperature of 25˚C was chosen to reduce the likelihood of the growth of potentially harmful pathogens since it is significantly below human body temperature.

Figure 1: Preparation of the agar plates

Figure 1: Preparation of the agar plates

Results

Table 1: Number of microorganism colonies grown on each section of the agar plates after 4 days of incubation at 25˚C


Table 1: Number of microorganism colonies grown on each section of the agar plates after 4 days of incubation at 25˚C

Investigation results (see Table 1) were collected by counting the number of visible microorganism colonies present on each third of the agar plate. Although it did not form part of the data collected for the investigation, it was also interesting to note that the ‘control’ and ‘three days’ swabs had produced the greatest range of microorganism species which were identified by differences in colony shape and colour.

Figure 2: Agar plates showing microorganism growth after 4 days of incubation

Figure 2: Agar plates showing microorganism growth after 4 days of incubation

In order to enable the easy identification of any pattern that may be present, the mean average number of colonies grown from each slide was then calculated. However, before calculating the average for the ‘three days’ slide, the decision was made to exclude the second result from the  mean since it was felt that the value was significantly below the other two and did not fit the pattern. Therefore this anomalous result was discarded from overall consideration.

Conclusions and Discussion

In many ways the results of the investigation gave the expected outcome since it illustrates that frequent disinfection reduces the presence of microorganisms, and most importantly pathogens on a particular surface. This strong positive correlation between the number of days since disinfection and the number of microorganism colonies grown can be clearly identified from Figure 3.

Figure 3: Graph to show the relationship between the time elapsed since disinfection and the number of microorganism colonies grown

Figure 3: Graph to show the relationship between the time elapsed since disinfection and the number of microorganism colonies grown

However, the most interesting finding of the investigation was the directly proportional relationship between the two positively correlating variables. If this pattern continues, it could be expected that after only five days, the number of microorganism colonies that can be grown from the disinfected slide would be equal to the number grown from the control slide. This suggests that if the frequency of disinfection is less than five days, the benefits in relation to reducing pathogen spread would be minimal.

In conclusion, the results of the investigation suggest that the effects of disinfection only last a very short time. Immediately after disinfection, the numbers of microorganisms present on the disinfected surface begin to rise steadily and after less than a week will reach a level similar to that of a surface where regular cleaning and disinfection does not take place.

The implications for disinfection and cleansing practices in relation to livestock are largely that in order for disinfection to be effective, it must be carried out at regular intervals, not only after use of the equipment has ended. If the findings of this experiment could be repeated in an agricultural context, they would suggest that daily disinfection- or, at the very least, every other day- is essential in order to keep pathogen levels low and minimise disease transmission within the herd. It would also reflect that disinfection that takes place at intervals of five days or greater may have very little benefit in reducing microorganism levels compared to equipment or surfaces that had not been disinfected.

Investigation Limitations and Ideas for Further Research

Due to health and safety restrictions within the school environment, it was necessary for the investigation carried out to be purely laboratory based since testing on farm equipment could potentially encourage the development of zoonoses. Therefore, the investigation served only to act as a model of disinfection in the agricultural setting.

In order to make the findings more relevant to livestock disinfection and cleansing schemes, it would be important to repeat the investigation using agricultural equipment in regular contact with cattle and a DEFRA-approved disinfectant 5)DEFRA. Disinfectants Approved for use in England, Scotland and Wales. http://disinfectants.defra.gov.uk/DisinfectantsExternal/Default.aspx?Module=ApprovalsList_SI.

 

References   [ + ]

1, 3. ↑ APHA. Defra approved disinfectant: when and how to use it. July 2014 a. https://www.gov.uk/guidance/defra-approved-disinfectant-when-and-how-to-use-it
2. ↑ APHA. Notifiable diseases in animals. August 2014 b. https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/notifiable-diseases-in-animals
4. ↑ APHA. Disease prevention for livestock and poultry keepers. September 2012. https://www.gov.uk/guidance/disease-prevention-for-livestock-farmers#buildings-equipment-and-vehicles
5. ↑ DEFRA. Disinfectants Approved for use in England, Scotland and Wales. http://disinfectants.defra.gov.uk/DisinfectantsExternal/Default.aspx?Module=ApprovalsList_SI
Decoration or Devastation – The True Cost of the Souvenir Shell Trade
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Decoration or Devastation – The True Cost of the Souvenir Shell Trade

Even though a shell or a piece of coral on your mantelpiece may look pretty, the long-term consequences on the ocean and its inhabitants may be serious.

You may think that one small shell won’t make a difference, but with every shell taken from its natural habitat the surrounding environment could suffer. This is because the sea snails that inhabit these shells are often removed from them while they are still alive, and there are even instructional videos freely available on YouTube, such as one entitled ‘How to Remove a Conch Snail From Its Shell’ to encourage other would-be shell collectors to do the same.

The removal of too many invertebrate mollusc shells from coral reefs means that the delicate balance of the marine ecosystem could become disrupted. An example of molluscs include snails and mussels. This could also happen when divers break off pieces of coral, either to keep as ornaments or to sell to tourists.

This roadside stall in Hawaii sells conch shells - an important element of traditional Polynesian culture - to tourists. Polynesia is a region of the South Pacific made up of over 1,000 islands, including Hawaii, New Zealand and the Cook Islands. Wally Gobetz/Flickr Photo License: CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

This roadside stall in Hawaii sells conch shells – an important element of traditional Polynesian culture – to tourists. Polynesia is a region of the South Pacific made up of over 1,000 islands, including Hawaii, New Zealand and the Cook Islands.
Wally Gobetz/Flickr
Photo License: CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

The removal of too many invertebrate mollusc shells from coral reefs means that the delicate balance of the marine ecosystem could become disrupted. An example of molluscs include snails and mussels. This could also happen when divers break off pieces of coral, either to keep as ornaments or to sell to tourists.

This type of disruption to marine ecosystems is currently seen in many of the world’s coral reefs. Add to this behaviour the acidification and rising temperatures in our oceans brought about by global warming, and you have a man-made recipe for disaster.

The impact of harvesting shells and corals.

Sea shells are sold all over the world as ornaments or as souvenirs. This souvenir trade involves around 5,000 species of molluscs (bivalves, oysters and mussels with hinged shells and gastropods which include snails and slugs), but few academics have done research to explore the global environmental impacts of this industry. Around 68 percent of these molluscs are harvested from the Atlantic ocean [1], but many are also imported from Indo-pacific countries, such as the Philippines, which has also experienced a decline in marine biodiversity partly as a result of uncontrolled sea shell harvesting [2].

Just one healthy coral outcrop can be inhabited by scores of different types of life Toby Hudson/Wikipedia Photo license: CC BY-SA 3.0

Just one healthy coral outcrop can be inhabited by scores of different types of life
Toby Hudson/Wikipedia
Photo license: CC BY-SA 3.0

Coral harvesting or coral poaching; this is the confiscation of highly-valued coral species – in the case of coral poaching, coral is stolen from reefs protected as part of nature reserves or marine parks. This has a serious effect on the marine environment. Coral is used as ornaments, jewellery and sometimes even medicine, making the commodity a valuable one in marketplaces around the world. Corals also have a very important role in the marine ecosystem: they are the most diverse ecosystems on earth and provide a habitat to around 25 percent of all sea life, they protect the coastline from damage when there are tropical storms and they also help to recycle nutrients in the surrounding water [3]. Harvesting corals may cause these vital and beautiful ecosystems to become extinct, and this could mean that thousands of species of fish and underwater plants could become endangered or extinct with it as many of them are dependent on their shelter and safety.

Triton’s last trumpet?

One particular example of possible mollusc shell over-exploitation is the Charonia tritonis (a sea snail known as Triton’s Trumpet). They have impressive shells that grow up to two feet long and are harvested by people to be used as decorative objects or can also be modified and used as a trumpet. It is thought that this sea snail could be vulnerable to extinction and there are very few left.

Triton’s Trumpet (Charonia tritonis) David Burdick, NOAA/Wikimedia Commons Photo License: Public Domain

Triton’s Trumpet (Charonia tritonis)
David Burdick, NOAA/Wikimedia Commons
Photo License: Public Domain

Although no recent studies have been done, the species is in severe decline and they are generally regarded as uncommon on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef. In the years between 1947-1960 it is estimated that up to 10,000 were harvested annually by the crews of trochus boats [4].

The over-exploitation of Triton’s Trumpet could be a specific cause for regret if action is not taken for their protection. This huge sea snail is one of the few natural solutions available to solve a pressing problem – the control of crown-of-thorns starfish, or COTS (Acanthaster planci), an outbreak of which can lay waste to healthy coral reefs in a matter of days. In addition to their venom being highly toxic to humans, COTS eat corals for their nutritious polyps (algae that helps the corals survive), which in turn weakens the coral making it vulnerable to algae which soon infests and kills it. Each COTS can consume up to 6 square meters a year.

Crown of thorns starfish (COTS) Thomas Quine/Wikimedia Commons Photo License: CC-BY 2.0

Crown of thorns starfish (COTS)
Thomas Quine/Wikimedia Commons
Photo License: CC-BY 2.0

The Triton’s Trumpet is able to feed on COTS by ripping the venomous starfish to pieces with its sharp poisonous teeth.

This is why tritonis is so important to the environment. By protecting them, we provide another layer of protection for the world’s coral ecosystems and all that live in them.

The marine ecosystem balance

Every ecosystem is unique and delicate, and the slightest change can upset the food chain and cause disaster. As an example, if there are too many COTS and too few Triton’s Trumpets the corals suffer, and as a result of that the reef’s inhabitants, including fish, molluscs and crabs, will also suffer.

As around 25 percent of all marine life depends on coral reefs most of their natural predators will probably suffer too. This could cause all marine life worldwide to die out.

As seafood is an important dietary component of many land-dwelling mammals and birds, this could affect other ecosystems on land and threaten other animals and plants in turn. This is why our oceans and all the life in them are very important to the wellbeing of humans and ultimately the whole world.

More research needs to be done on the effect of the souvenir shell trade on our environment. Given the importance of coral reefs, it is our duty to help and protect the animals that protect our corals in order for them to survive.

It’s not just down to conservationists – we need to act as individuals too. By refusing to take shells away from the coastlines or buying them when we go on holiday, we are recognising that they have a much more important job maintaining the balance of the ecosystem than sitting on our shelves collecting dust.

By Aayah Talbot, Year 9, Harrow High School

 

[1]  Compendium of seashells. A colour guide to more than 4,200 of the world’s marine shells, R Tucker Abbor. EP Dutton, 1982

[2] The need for conservation and management of Philippine coral reefs, Peter J. Rubec, Environmental Biology of Fishes Vol. 23 1988.

[3] Importance of coral reefs. Queensland Museum

[4]  According to a proposal put forward by the Australian government to CITES for the protection of tritonis in 1994

 

About the author

From an early age, Aayah has been fascinated with the ocean. She was selected to join the Save Our Seas Foundation Seychelles marine explorers programme in 2015, giving her the opportunity to get up close and personal with the inhabitants of some of the most beautiful coral reefs in the world – reefs which are under constant threat from climate change and coral bleaching.

 

The Science behind Tsunamis
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The Science behind Tsunamis

A tsunami is a series of long, high sea waves caused by a disturbance in the water. This disturbance can come about in many ways such as an earthquake, landslide, volcanic eruption, or meteorite. The most common causes are volcanic or earthquake activity, and the disturbance itself causes abrupt movement of the water column.

Tsunamis are different to the ordinary undersea currents, as these are caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun, resulting in tides, while some sea waves are caused by the wind. Moreover, tsunamis do not take after normal waves as they have a much longer wavelength (distance between successive peaks).

Diagram of Wave Formation, credited to CSU Geology Department.

Diagram of Wave Formation, credited to CSU Geology Department.

The waves travel in all directions from the area where the tsunami starts. The speed of a tsunami is controlled by the depth of the water, which means it slows down as it gets closer to the shore, due to the fact that water becomes increasingly shallow. However, the water column behind it is still in deeper water, which means it’s moving faster so it catches up, causing the wave to become a lot higher. The size of the wave is dependent on the physical features of the coastline and the ocean floor.

Tsunamis increase in height as they go over gradual, long slopes. Usually, this happens closer to land where water depth is less than 100m.  This is known as shoaling. The shoaling effect is what causes waves with the height of about 1m in the open ocean to be able to reach 10s or 100s of metres above sea level onshore.

Tsunamis are usually a series of waves, and the first one isn’t always the most substantial, which is the reason for why a small tsunami at one shoreline, can turn into a giant wave at another. Sequential peaks can be 5-90 minutes apart.

Damage from the 2011 tsunami in Japan. Image from https://www.allianz.com/en/about_us/open-knowledge/topics/environment/articles/110315-how-to-defend-against-tsunamis.html/

Damage from the 2011 tsunami in Japan. Image from https://www.allianz.com/ “How to Defend Against Tsunamis”

If a major disturbance occurs underwater close to shore, the first wave could reach the beach without an issued warning in a matter of minutes. This poses a great risk to areas less than 8m above sea level and within a mile of the shoreline. Although this disaster starts in the water, a tsunami can go on to create havoc on land as its waves and receding waters can be disastrous to any infrastructure in the run-up zone. The most common cause of death that’s linked with tsunamis is drowning but tsunamis can also bring about flooding, contamination of drinking water, and fires from gas lines.

 

A Devastating Example: The Great Tohoku Earthquake

Date & Time: 2:46 p.m. – March 11, 2011 

In 2011, the Tohoku earthquake struck offshore of Japan. The earthquake was recorded as 9 on the Richter scale, a devastating earthquake that unleashed a ravaging tsunami on Japan. The earthquake occurred due to two tectonic plates colliding at a destructive plate boundary, in particular a subduction zone. The denser Pacific tectonic plate slid under the lighter North American plate. The huge plates came together and became trapped, causing energy to build up as they attempted to release themselves. Eventually the pressure built up and the plates released, causing an earthquake to occur. This sudden uplift displaced the water and caused the birth of a tsunami.

 

Map of the Earthquake Epicentre, obtained from the University of Texas at San Antonio website https://www.utsa.edu/today/

Map of the Earthquake Epicentre, obtained from the University of Texas at San Antonio website https://www.utsa.edu/today/

The tsunami was sent crashing into the north east of Japan. In the first 30 minutes a 40m high wave hit the coast, followed by 9 additional waves up to 10m in height. The effects were horrific with over 15,000 deaths according to Japan’s National Police Agency. In addition, 2000 people were injured, 530 000 people displaced, at least 1.2 million houses without electricity or water, 50 000 houses damaged and 32 bridges destroyed. However, one of the most devastating effects was the tsunami causing a system failure at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, resulting in a level 7 nuclear meltdown and release of radioactive materials. In July 2013, TEPCO, the Tokyo Electric Power Company, admitted that about 300 tons of radioactive water leaks from the plant into the Pacific Ocean every day. The radioactive material was identified as radioactive isotopes of caesium-134 and caesium-137.

 

 

 

 

 

By Ahmed Ismail and Zain Hajee, from the Bolton Hub

 

 

King’s Hub: Videos You Should Watch
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King’s Hub: Videos You Should Watch

Here is a selection of short, fun and interesting videos recommended by the King’s Hub. There is something for every scientist, with maths, physics, biology and chemistry related content. Although they are great to watch purely as entertainment, the King’s Hub also loves these videos because they show the wonderful (and slightly weird) knowledge that science and maths can give us. We hope you enjoy!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wBU9N35ZHIw – Scientific ways to cut a cake. (Numberphile)

1

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3MqYE2UuN24 – Is it better to run or walk in the rain? (minutephysics)

2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=98TQv5IAtY8 – The famously difficult green-eyed logic puzzle. (TED-Ed)

3

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6MfZbCvPCw – The most dangerous chemical. (Periodic Videos)

4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vPszR0-vTqc – This much will kill you. (AsapSCIENCE)

5

If you enjoy these types of videos, then follow our Facebook page or check out our YouTube channel ( https://www.youtube.com/user/YoungSciJournal ) for more cool science related content. Please feel free to share your favourite science-related videos with us on our Facebook page. If you have skills as an animator, then we would love your help, please contact [email protected]!