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jwinrow August 11, 2016

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Exercise Induced Pulmonary Haemorrhage in Horses

Bleeding, or Exercise Induced Pulmonary Haemorrhage (EIPH), is one of the most common problems experienced by racehorses and can only really, by clinical evaluation, be identified through loss of blood from the nose, which to most would appear relatively serious. [1] (Figure a.)

(Figure a.)

However, there is evidence to suggest that nearly every racehorse will suffer from some form of EIPH at some point in its career. “In studies of thoroughbreds and standardbreds, where these horses were “scoped” (had their windpipes endoscopically examined) 60-90 minutes after racing, bleeding was detected in 50-60% of horses. In studies where the same horses were examined after three races, almost 90% bled on at least one occasion.”[2] Not only racehorses, but others including 3 day eventers, polo ponies and draught horses are also susceptible to this as a result of prolonged or intense exercise. [3] Although this frequent problem has been known about for around 300 years, there are still huge gaps in our knowledge about the causes, prevention and possible treatment, and a great deal more research must be done if we are to minimise its effects. As a result, with numerous theories about the causation, we will struggle to direct our research or target the correct areas when developing a cure. [4] Surprisingly, this problem has little effect on the health of the animal, but there is evidence to prove that it does and will, have a negative effect on performance, which owners and trainers are constantly trying to maximise. In an older horse the effect of regular bleeding over any period of time may trigger more harmful health conditions. [5]

The original and most widely accepted theory for the causation is known as “pulmonary capillary stress failure”. [6] Within the lungs, small air sacs called alveoli interface with tiny and numerous capillaries, and this is the site of gas exchange between the air and blood. However, between the two there is only a small lining layer consisting of an endothelial and epithelial lining, which is very thin allowing for gas exchange, but this also makes it very weak. A resting horse will retain around one third of its red blood cells within the spleen, however, during exercise this contracts forcing these stored red blood cells into the circulatory system. This allows more oxygen to be carried within the blood and distributed to the various muscle cells, which must respire aerobically to release the required energy sufficient for the current level of exercise. [7] In addition to this increase in pressure, an increase in heart rate from around 36 to 44 bpm also exerts a substantial force on the site of gas exchange. Blood pressure at this site increases drastically during exercise and is in fact around 2 to 3 times greater than other organisms undertaking the equivalent amount of exercise. “The pressure in the small blood vessels, or capillaries, within the lungs of a horse can increase from approximately 25 mm Hg at rest, up to 85-90 mm Hg during strenuous exercise. Most species reach a pressure of about 35 mm Hg during exercise, making a rise in pressure of this magnitude unique to the horse.” [8] (Figure b.) It is this high positive pressure, when combined with the large negative pressure in the airways that increases the chances of blood vessel rupture. “Research studies show the horse’s heart does not relax quickly enough between beats during intense exercise, when heart rate can approach 230 beats per minute. When the left side of the heart is insufficiently relaxed, greater pressures within the lung are required to facilitate blood flow from the lung to the heart between beats.” [9] It is this pressure which is exerted on the endothelial lining of the capillary which causes them to tear, releasing blood into the lungs. The presence of this blood will reduce the efficiency and rate of gas exchange meaning less oxygen can be provided to respiring muscle cells and as a result performance during exercise is reduced. [10]

(Figure b.)

In contrast, there is another much more recent theory relating to trauma but of which little is known about. As a result, further studies are required to strengthen this theory or even prove/disprove it. It is thought that the continual pounding of the horses’ hooves and forelimbs when in a gallop sends shockwaves up the legs. The shoulder blade (scapula) then acts as a new source and transmits these waves into the thorax, and throughout the lungs. In the latter part of the lungs, or dorsocaudal region, the lungs begin to narrow and as a result these shock waves become stronger, and more highly concentrated. Most of the bleeding occurs in the dorsocaudal region as a result of trauma as this is where the pressure waves are focused. [11] (Figure c.)

(Figure c.)

Unhealthy lungs are also more susceptible to haemorrhaging. For example, if a horse is already affected with bronchitis there will already be inflammation present within the airways. This is the response required to remove the allergen and repair any damage done, which requires an increase in blood supply to the affected area. For this to occur, new capillaries must form and as a result they will be much weaker and therefore more likely to rupture when the pressure within them increases as a result of strenuous exercise. [12] In addition, the blood itself will cause irritation and inflammation within the airways, and over time lead to a build-up of scar tissue which will negatively affect lung function. The majority of the blood in the airways will be removed by the mucocilliary escalator, however, some may be engulfed by macrophages causing further inflammation and prolonging the effects of EIPH. [13] It is this scar tissue from repeated haemorrhaging that will affect the health of an older horse as a result of damaged lungs and poor gas exchange. [14]

Diagnosis of this disease is normally extremely difficult, because unless there are very obvious and severe signs such as bleeding from the nose, the damage is internal and therefore it may be overlooked or undetected. Signs of less severe cases include coughing, but normally its presence can be indicated through poor performance, for example in a race. One study carried out in 2005, showed horses with diagnosed EIPH finished on average 6 metres behind those without the disease. Currently there are three methods of detection for this particular condition, however, each alone cannot conclude whether or not a horse is suffering from this disease or another, such as guttural pouch mycosis and ethmoid hematoma. As a consequence, two or three are usually used in combination. Firstly, endoscopy can be used which involves passing a small camera through the nostril and into the trachea which must be performed 60-90 minutes after exercise, and this can detect the presence of blood in the airways. [15]

A tracheal wash is also commonly used which involves collecting samples of cells from within the trachea. If macrophages with a pigment from engulfed red blood cells are present then this can be used as evidence of previous haemorrhaging. (Figure d.) However, this does have its drawbacks because this does not give a time scale of the event, nor does it show the extent of the bleeding as the cell count obtained will vary greatly from the actual location of the haemorrhage. [16]

(Figure d.)

The final, more accurate method of detection is known as brochoalveolar lavage, which again involves passing a tube through the nostril into the trachea, whereas this time it continues going down further air passages deeper into the lungs where it obtains another sample of cells. Veterinarians will use this sample to find out the number and types of cells present that lie deep within the lungs, which will allow them to see if there is any inflammation present and also any abnormally large numbers of red blood cells which will show the degree of haemorrhaging. [17] To study this in further detail, horses are often run on treadmills in order to induce bleeding. [18] (Figure e.) “Three thoroughbreds with known EIPH were galloped on a treadmill, and after the horses were killed with intravenous barbiturate the lungs were removed, inflated, and fixed for electron microscopy.” [19]

(Figure e.)

Unfortunately no cure has yet been found to treat horses suffering from EIPH, and although there is one treatment known as Lasix used in the USA it is at present banned in most other countries. [20] In fact, Lasix is a diuretic and used commonly in human medicine to treat high blood pressure/hypertension as it induces urination. [21] This plays a key role in the treatment of EIPH as it is the high blood pressure within the pulmonary circulatory system which is believed to cause the symptoms. “Lasix is administered intravenously about four hours before exercise, and acts rapidly on the kidneys, resulting in an increase in urine production. When given Lasix, horses can lose up to 2.4% of their body weight in urine excretion. By filtering this large amount of water and electrolytes from the blood, the kidneys reduce the blood plasma volume and blood volume by approximately 8.4% and 11% respectively. By reducing the volume of blood flowing through the vascular system, while retaining the same number of red blood cells necessary for oxygen transport, the blood pressure within the lungs has been shown to drop approximately 7-10 mm Hg without compromising oxygen transport to the muscles.” [22] (Figure f.) This treatment should therefore in theory reduce the amount and extent of haemorrhaging whilst undertaking strenuous exercise, however, it will not prevent it completely. Research is still being done into the effectiveness of this drug as some horses respond really well, whereas others show there to be no less blood within the trachea after exercise. [23] On the other hand, there is also evidence to suggest that Lasix actually improves race performance as those that have been treated show a faster race time than those without. This is thought to be as a result of weight loss due to excessive urination, which will therefore lead to a lighter horse and in essence one which is thought to be much faster. This is because an equal amount of energy can be used in moving a lower mass around the track. All of the outcomes mentioned above are the reason why there is controversy surrounding this drug and why it is illegal in some countries. [24]

(Figure f.)

Another form of treatment which is currently being researched into is nitric oxide (NO). This acts as a vasodilator which allows the lung capillaries to accommodate the large increase in both blood volume and pressure flowing through them, and from counteracting these changes the effects of EIPH should decrease. [25]

There is evidently a lot more research which must be done in this field, but due to its time of occurrence and internal location this is extremely difficult. Although it may seem cruel to euthanize animals for research purposes, many more will be saved in the long term if this disease is further understood and a cure developed.

[3] [15-17] Anon “Exercise induced pulmonary haemorrhage” (2014) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise-induced_pulmonary_hemorrhage

[2-3] [6-9] [13] Ray Geor “EIPH: Exercise induced pulmonary haemorrhage” (2001) http://www.thehorse.com/articles/12529/eiph-exercise-induced-pulmonary-hemorrhage

[15-18] Bonnie. R. Rusk “Exercise induced pulmonary haemorrhage in horses” (2014) http://www.merckmanuals.com/vet/respiratory_system/respiratory_diseases_of_horses/exercise-induced_pulmonary_hemorrhage_in_horses.html

[1] [3-8] [10-18] [20-25] (Figures b, c, d, f.) Todd. D. East and equine pulmonary lab “Exercise induced pulmonary haemorrhage” http://cvm.msu.edu/research/research-labs/equine-pulmonary-laboratory/respiratory-diseases/exercise-induced-pulmonary-hemorrhage#content

[5] [15] [17] “Exercise induced pulmonary haemorrhage” (2013) http://en.wikivet.net/Exercise_Induced_Pulmonary_Haemorrhage

[19] Journal: J. B. West “stress failure of pulmonary capillaries in racehorses with exercise induced pulmonary haemorrhage” (1993) http://jap.physiology.org/content/75/3/1097

(Figure a.) https://www.google.co.uk

(Figure e.) http://www.google.co.uk

zohim March 7, 2016

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Astronomy, Physics, Space

The Hunt for the Higgs

Physics tries to answer some of the most fundamental questions in the universe. What caused the Big Bang? Why is the observable universe so isotropic? Why is Earth able to nurture life? One important question that has mystified physicists for years is the idea of mass and more importantly its origins. The discovery of the Higgs boson goes some way to explaining this mystery.

The most basic explanation of what mass is may be that it is how heavy a physical body is, it is what physical bodies are made up of. Some may even go on to talk about how much matter an object contains. Moreover, you feel mass all around you. When you push on an object, the object has a resistive force which acts in the opposite direction to your push. Part of the resistance you feel is the mass of the object but where does it originate from?

Each physical body is made up of its constituent elements and these elements are made up of their subatomic particles: electrons, protons and neutrons. The protons and neutrons are made up of even smaller particles called quarks, but mass is not just a fundamental property of an object like electrical charge. Mass has to be acquired. So how do particles on a nanoscopic scale acquire mass?

The theorists: Robert Brout, François Englert and Peter Higgs tried to answer this question in 1964.

Their idea was that the universe is a space which is filled with the Higgs field in all directions. A field in physics is a physical quantity that has a value for each point in space and time. The value of the Higgs field in a vacuum is expected to be 246 GeV. In addition the Higgs field has no source whereas a gravitational field is due to the mass of an object. When particles permeate and interact with this Higgs field they experience a resistance which slows them down and makes them heavier. For e.g. the resistance an electron experiences whilst interacting with the surrounding Higgs field is the mass of the electron. However the photon which is a massless particle doesn’t interact with the Higgs field at all.

There is a strong relationship between fields and particles which goes back to quantum mechanics. The particles of light, the photons are associated with the electromagnetic field and the gravitational field has a theorised associated particle called the graviton. The particles that are associated with each field are observed as an excitation of that field. Thus when the Higgs field is fluctuated, it must have an associated particle called the Higgs boson, as theorised by Peter Higgs. The existence of the Higgs field can only be confirmed if the Higgs boson is detected.

The mass of the Higgs boson was predicted using mathematical modelling but the inaccuracy associated with it was so large that it had a range of over 5 different orders of magnitude. The confirmation of the existence of the Higgs boson, which in turn confirms the existence of the Higgs field came in March 2013 from the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in Geneva, Switzerland.

The LHC is a high energy particle accelerator, which spans 27km (16.5 miles) in circumference, that can recreate the extreme energies of the early universe. Particles such as protons are accelerated to nearly the speed of light in the LHC. The two proton beams travelling in opposite directions have a total energy of 8 TeV. The collision of the two proton beams with one another leaves behind a vast array of other smaller particles. Approximately 0.5 billion proton-proton collisions occur each second. The collision disturbs the space around the particles and this caused a fluctuation in the Higgs field. If done in the right way the fluctuation can be observed as a Higgs boson. Only about 200 out of every 800 trillion collisions produces the Higgs particle.
Detection of the Higgs boson in the 2 detectors present at the LHC is another daunting task due to its short mean lifetime of approximately 1.56×10−22 s. Like other heavy particles the Higgs decays into other particles almost immediately, long before it can be observed directly. The two detectors: ATLAS and CMS are arranged in an onion-like structure with various layers of different detectors capable of measuring different decay products. The collision occurs in the centre of the detector and the debris travels radially outwards. The standard model of particle physics can thus be used to predict its decay products and their individual probabilities. Physicists compare the decay paths observed after a particle collision to the decay paths they have simulated using computational methods. They also observe the rate at which the Higgs particle decays to other particles as a function of its mass. When they see a match it is a good sign that the particle that decayed must have come from the Higgs Boson.
By studying these decay products at CMS and ATLAS, we now know that the Higgs boson decays into W and Z bosons, 4 electrons and 2 photons. Experimental data also suggests that the Higgs decays into fermions but the probability of this is quite low.

The discovery of the Higgs is a new addition to the Standard Model. Until now we had only discovered 2 types of particles: the matter particles which are the quarks and leptons and the force particles which are the photons, gluons and the W and Z bosons. The discovery of the Higgs particle is a new addition to this family of particles.

As in much of science, this new discovery has led to a plethora of additional questions. Recent experiments at the LHC are trying to measure the likelihood of each decay mode of the Higgs. Physicists are also trying to calculate the spin of the Higgs by measuring the angular displacement of its decay products. Moreover questions such: ‘Is the Higgs a composite particle or is it made up of something else?’ are being posed.

The Higgs field is of immense significance and is the source by which elementary particles acquire mass. It was first theorised in the 1960’s and was confirmed in March 2013. The painstaking 50 year effort involved 5000 physicists and engineers worldwide. The idea of Higgs began as mathematical symbols in an equation on paper. Over 50 years the idea was refined and now mathematics has led the way in the confirmation of the existence of the Higgs boson.

The Higgs bridges the gap between the mathematical simplicity as theorised by physicists and the full complexity of the world we live in.

Edward S-L March 1, 2016

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Biology, Health

The Terrible Truth About Tanning

I’m sure that everyone reading this has, at least once in their life, visited the Beach during the Summer. During your visit to the Beach you will apply some Sun Cream, swim in the Ocean, have an Ice-cream etc. Finally as you are heading home you might have noticed that you have tanned a small amount, or a large amount if your aim was to tan. I hope that at some point you have wondered why that happens, why we tan and that is what this post is about to tell you what actually a tan is and what the terrible truth about tanning actually is.

I would like you to cast your mind back a couple thousand of years, before the Age of Sun Cream, when Stone Age Man is wandering around on Earth. It is Summer and the Sun is beating down on the Earth like a big metaphorical hammer. Those good at general knowledge will know that the Sun radiates all three types of UV light UVA, UVB and UVC. The Geniuses reading this will know that UV light is a Mutagen. A Mutagen is anything which mutates DNA. Fortunately for our Stone Age Man all UVC and most UVB is absorbed by the Ozone layer (UVC is the worst and UVA is the least harmful) but UVA which isn’t that bad passes straight through. But even though all UVC was being absorbed UVB and UVA are still Mutagens and so are a danger to Stone Age Man. Stone Age Man however has a weapon against UV light. A chemical called Melanin is produced in the Melanocytes which are in the Stratum germinativum (one of the lowest levels of the skin) through the process of Melanogenesis and this chemical protects the skin for the UV light by forming a dark cap over the epidermis’ nucleus thereby protecting the cell’s DNA and preventing any mutation taking place. Melanin is also a pigment which helps to protect the skin from the UV as well as capping the nucleus, this dark pigment is what we call a Tan. Through the process of survival of the fittest those who had the Melanin gene had a greater chance of passing on their gene’s to the point where everyone had this gene.

The more UV light received the more Melanin produced this is why people who live in desert countries, countries which receive larger doses of UV light have darker skin. But a tan doesn’t last forever because the Melanin slowly works its way up through the epidermis and eventually falls off as dead skin cells. While the Melanin doesn’t cause any damage the act of tanning does. While Melanin is an amazing substance it can’t be everywhere at once especially in people who don’t live in countries where there is a constant, high level of UV light. Since the Melanocytes aren’t designed in ‘white’ people to deal with vast amounts of UV light the Melanocytes just can’t keep up and so the UV light is able to get to some cell’s Nuclei before the Melanin shield can reach them and so the mutations begin, and when DNA starts mutating that only means one thing. Cancer.

Personally, I blame tanning salons for this. Blasting customer after customer which damaging UV rays and then getting paid for it! The type of cancer caused by this over-dose of tan is called Malignant Melanoma. Like all cancers is unpleasent to say the least, but i’m not going into the symptoms of this cancer. One thing I will say on the matter is that unlike most cancers, where you are given a rough guide on what not to do and maybe if your lucky you won’t get it, Malignant Melanoma is one of the easiest cancer’s to avoid all you have to do is not try and over-tan. Tanning from time to time is fine but trying to tan constantly will ruin your life to say the least.

And that my readers is the Terrible truth about tanning.

Julia Edsparr November 23, 2014

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Science News

Sex lowers cancer risk

Canadian scientists have found from the surveys of over 3200 men, that men who had sex with more than twenty women—in comparison to just one over their lifetime– had a 28% lower risk of developing prostate cancer. Furthermore, those who said they’d never had sex before, were twice as likely to be diagnosed with prostate cancer than those who said that they had had sex.

However, scientists do not believe it is the number of partners which affects cancer, but rather simply the frequency of ejaculation. Another study published earlier this year indicated that when men don’t ejaculate often, inflammatory cells gather near the prostate, which could lead to cancer.

Claire Nicholson November 9, 2014

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Biology, Chemistry, YSJ

The Real Meaning of Science with Liz Bonnin

On Thursday 6th November, I had the pleasure of interviewing BBC Television presenter Liz Bonnin. Liz has presented many TV programmes over her career, from BBC Bang Goes the Theory since it first aired in July of 2009 and Operation Snow Tiger to specials like the BBC Horizon Series to BBC Stargazing Live. She’s used her Biochemistry background to inspire people of all ages into science. One thing that I did learn throughout the interview was that, as Liz says, science isn’t a subject, science is about asking questions about the world around us and learning more about Earth – that’s the real meaning of science.An edited transcript of her interview is below, along with an audio file of the whole interview. In this interview she talks about her TV career before TV and the real meaning of science…

Claire: Hi Liz, How are you?

Liz: I’m very well thank you Claire, how are you?

Claire: I’m good thanks, thank you for spending the time to talk to us, we really do appreciate it! Some of our British viewers may recognize you from BBC Bang Goes the Theory and specials like Stargazing Live, but do you have any stand out moments from your TV career?

Liz: I’m very lucky that I do what I absolutely love and so when I’m sent to do anything to do with science or natural history, it’s pretty much a stand out moment for me, it’s like a dream come true. Although because you mentioned Stargazing, last year they sent me to Norway on the hunt for the Aurora. It was a little bit of an ambitious project because they wanted us to capture the aurora live from an aeroplane, so you can imagine the technology that was necessary and the incredible amount of luck to do it in the couple of minutes we would be on air. However we achieved it and I managed to see the most ridiculous auroral displays, so that definitely sticks out in my memory. I’ve also been very lucky to be able to combine my Biochemistry background with my wild animal background and do lots of programmes on the intelligence and behaviours of animals which I’m really fascinated about. Because of those shows I’ve encountered grey whales in Mexico that came up to the boat and present to their calves and play around the boat and like to be scratched, which is really, really surreal because of all the cetaceans they’re the most primordial looking they’re very unusual, That was a very powerful moment and I’ve encountered elephants and tigers and I’ve just been really lucky, so it’s very difficult to pick one! But because I studied tigers for my Masters, being able to film a programme about Siberian Tigers or the Amur Tiger in the Russian far east was definitely up there in my dream come true moments and I’ve been very privileged to have been able to do that with the BBC – that was definitely a gold star moment for me anyway!

The Amur Tiger

The Aurora Borealis in Norway

Claire: I can imagine!! Have you got any TV programme or documentary that you haven’t filmed already but would really like to?

Liz: I’ve loads!! There’s a massive long list that I keep pestering people at the BBC about! I’d like to continue discovering this wonderful planet of ours. I think next on my list, I’d love to do something with the snow leopards, they’re obviously very difficult to film and very difficult to reach and study. For me you don’t necessarily have to have the animal on camera all the time, you can tell its story, through the people that research these animal, which is very much what we did for Operation Snow Tiger. There are lots of long term projects- one five year project – so I’d love to do a series on that and the scientists that work at studying this big cat.

Claire: That sounds amazing!

Liz: Well I’m not doing it or anything there’s no commission yet, but hopefully I’ll get a chance to do that at some point in the future!

Claire: Well fingers crossed!! If you don’t mind me asking, what did you do before TV?

Liz: Before television I, well I went to University and I studied Biochemistry, I sang in a band for a while , I travelled a lot, and kind of floated through a lot of my twenties, not really being too serious about getting my career together. I wasn’t at pains to figure it all out very early and it’s something I like to advise people about when they ask me about either a science career or a television career. You don’t have to stress yourself out too much with knowing exactly what you want to do, things tend to fall into place as long as you’ve got something you’re passionate about and you’ve discovered that in some way. I did my Biochemistry as I say and then and went back to do a Masters many years later, here in London , doing Wild Animal Biology, studied, travelled sang a bit and then got into TV!

Claire: So have you got a favourite thing about your job?

Liz: The best thing about my job is being inspired by all these fantastic people I meet, for example there was a fantastic guy called Victor Lukarevsky, who’s a Russian Scientist who is obsessed with Tigers and Leopards. He’s one of the most passionate, generous, kind, intelligent warm , just a good guy, good egg, good human being, that I’ve ever met. As well as selfishly loving my experiences in television because I get to travel and learn things and see things what has taught me above all is that there are some really fantastic individuals on this planet that are to me the unsung heroes of the world that really just dedicate their lives to protecting our natural world. It’s been a lovely eye opener for me to know that there are these incredible people out there who do this incredible stuff, that puts a smile on my face to think we might just be okay!

Claire: Is there anyone past or present that you admire most in the world of science? – I know you’ve mentioned one person, but is there anyone else?

Liz: Well, yes, I’ve mentioned Victor and of course there’s the Charles Darwins, and the Marie Curies and the Isaac Newtons all these incredible, ground-breaking geniuses who really just changed the world for the better in ways that we can only dream about. For me, it’s about the people on the ground, the scientists who are haven’t become world famous, not for lack of all their hard work and their furthering of our scientific knowledge. They are nonetheless just as important and Victor is certainly one of those people but also what comes to mind is, do you remember when there was the big BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico? We went to do a piece on that for Bang Goes the Theory. In one big hangar in incredibly humid very, very hot temperatures, all these scientists were working tirelessly night and day to save all these birds that had been affected by the oil spill.,There was this massive sort of factory, a group that was washing these pelicans, a group that was warming them up a group that was feeding them, we were there filming and they were just getting on with it. I just had to take stock of all these incredible people doing this work, with no recognition, they’re to me the scientists that we should admire the most.

Claire: I totally agree! I know you’re supporting the Antibacterial Resistance for the Longitude Prize but what do you think the next major scientific milestone or discovery is going to be?

Liz: That’s a very good question, there are so many areas that need attention. It’s impossible to predict what the next milestone will be because by the very nature of how science works, everything is progress from the last bit of research, the last project the last study from the last research paper so who knows who’s going to have a ground-breaking discovery that will fast track that area. But what I think is interesting, is how more so than ever all the different scientific disciplines are communicating with each other more. What I’m excited about is this thing called open source, which quite a few scientists are doing. It’s where the focus isn’t on economic gain, the focus is on bettering our planet for the future. This means sharing your ideas with other scientists so the progress of that idea is fast tracked and when it comes to sustainability issues on our planet, that’s what a lot of young scientists are doing. It’s so refreshing in so many ways, and I think there’s a massive lesson to be learnt about not focusing on how much money you can make but focusing on doing what we’re all supposed to be doing protecting our planet for the future. Yhat’s where I’m really excited about with respect to what’s coming next in science, the more the disciplines talk to each other, the more exciting the scientific discoveries are going to become.

Claire: In the future, I’d really love to become a science television presenter…

Liz: Are you sure? I’m not trying to warn you out of the job, but it’s a hard job Obviously I’m very lucky and I get to travel, but it’s a tough job too!

Claire: I think the one thing that attracts me to, is the challenge behind it, and I’ve tried to get as much experience as possible by doing this with the Young Scientists Journal and on my blog.

Liz: All that is really good, good on you! How old are you Claire?

Claire: I’m 16…

Liz: Oh you’re only a baby!! Do you need any advice??

Claire: What I was going to ask you is if you’ve got any advice for anyone who wants to go into a job in science or science communication??

Liz: Science communication is not just television presenting, what’s been lovely for me is that I’ve been able to understand how much I can do aside from just the presenting aspect. We do love talks and we get together at the Cheltenham Science Festival, the Big Bang Fair so that’s science communication and if you’re into that I think first and foremost you just have to be passionate about it for the right reasons, You want to be part of a movement that helps to inspire the next generation, because sometimes when it comes to television presenting, some people might be attracted to it just because they’d like to be on television. So I think people who do well in science communication are not so much great presenters they’re people who really know their stuff and really care about it and once that passion comes through everything else can follow. You know you don’t have to be the most well versed presenter or with the best voice for voice overs, but you need to have that passion coming out and that’s the way to inspire others and to really make an impression on others with respect to the issues about the natural world or all the wonders of the natural world; I think it’s about hard work and dedication like everything else in this world, you know that you might want to do. But I think passion above all else is what will get you through.

Claire: Thanks for the advice! I think the thing for me is that TV presenting I suppose is science television presenting is science communication on one of the grandest scales…

Liz: So you do reach a big audience through television, but the world is changing and we’re talking about the future of programming. People don’t watch as much telly in the same way as they used to in the past, that’s why it’s important, you know you’ve got a blog, you’re doing this online there’s a lot of other ways you can communicate science and television is just one of them. So really you don’t reach as bigger television audience as you used to. We’re really aware of that about other ways to reach the people you want to reach, to communicate a certain aspect of science, the natural world or whatever and that’s why for me sometimes I think I’ve traveled so much in a year that I haven’t been around to actually meet people and give talks to schools and all that kind of stuff, I think that’s really important as well.

Claire: On the subject of science programming I know that Bang Goes the Theory isn’t returning, but do you think this is down to lack of public interest in long running series and only with documentary specials, like stargazing and the Horizon specials?

Liz: No I think Bang has been on air for almost 6 years, I think we did 8 or 9 series? Like everything else there are very few formats that last for forever and especially in the changing world of television at the moment and how science changes so much. The BBC just decided, okay maybe time to stop that and they’re replacing it with other science programmes that will go on air at the same time on BBC1. So we’re very much committed to producing programmes for a BBC 1 audience as well as the Horizons and other programmes on BBC2 and BBC4, It was just time to look at another way of communicating aspects of science to that audience. It wasn’t a reflection on the public’s interest or reception of it because the ratings were just as good as they had ever been, it was just a decision to change the format and shake it up a bit. So thankfully it’s really good to see that we’re still committed to putting out those kinds of programmes on BBC1 in the future and they’re working on two of them at the moment already so it’s all good!

Claire: Apart from obviously making science fun, do you think there’s a way of dispelling the myths of science and promoting science in schools?

A Family of Emperor Penguins in Antarctica

Liz: I think there is, it’s a difficult one because for me it all comes so naturally, it makes so much sense that science by its very nature doesn’t have to be sold because it’s just so cool. It’s describing the world around you. What’s interesting is when you are privy to some discussions about old science is that it’s an old man in a lab coat and there’s no creativity attached to it, I don’t know where that’s stemmed from but it’s really and truly not the case and never has been the case with respect to science, I mean most scientists I know are really… there’s one of my best friends who’s now in Antarctica chasing penguins and putting out these monitoring cameras and having the most incredible time of his life, we are a bunch of very creative, very positive adventure seeking people from the most part. I think everything else, our culture and popular media tends to characterize different careers as certain things that aren’t necessarily true, anyway having said all of that, I think our role as science communicators is just to remind people that science is about describing this incredible planet of ours and beyond, I think once you just remind them of that, this will reignite their curiosity for the world, the rest does the job. I think people make this mistake of thinking science is a subject like law. For me science is about asking questions about why you’re here, how does your body work, what does that plant do, how far is that star from our planet – to that to me is science. It’s almost like reminding people what they were like when they were children and they couldn’t stop asking questions and they were so excited about the world, that’s what scientists are, and that’s what us science communicators are trying to do is remind them of their of their childish enthusiasm and curiosity about the world.

Claire: Do you have an earliest science memory – anything you did as a kid that made you particularly curious about the world around us?

Liz: It’s only when people started asking me this obviously when I was in this career that I had a think about it. I do remember when I was living in the South of France in the countryside where we had a little wood by our house, there was often a lot of really cool birds that would land on my little balcony outside my bedroom.. I remember staring at these little birds and looking at their eyes moving in their sockets and imagining their tiny hearts beating in their little fluffy chest and wondering how on earth something so small could work so perfectly. Seeing the birds cock their heads towards me, I remember thinking what is it thinking? You know nature is so perfect, I wanted to understand how on Earth they could be so perfect and so awesome! So that’s my earliest memories and I think that’s why I studied biochemistry, to know how everything works down to chemical equations basically!

Claire: Wow! I think that’s everything, thank you so much for your time Liz, it’s been enormously appreciated!

Liz: That’s not a problem; it’s been a pleasure talking to you Claire, thank you! Bye!

You can also hear this interview –

a video with pictures will be up in due course!

ZahraHanif November 2, 2014

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Biology, Health, Medicine

The Death Virus: An Overview

The Ebola virus, or ‘Death Virus’ is a major concern due to the recent outbreak across West Africa, in countries such as Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia. The disease is now at an international scale, with precautions even being taken to prepare in the UK. So, what is Ebola and how is it so deadly?

The Ebola virus has been found in five different strains, four of which have been known to affect humans. If you were to look at an electron micrograph of members of the ‘Ebolavirus’ genus, you would see their characteristic thread-like structure. The virus can be transmitted to humans from the carcasses of primates such as gorillas and chimpanzees, usually to one individual. The virus is then spread to other persons through contact of bodily fluids.

The spread of Ebola that has led to an epidemic has occurred in poor hospital conditions, where safety precautions have not been properly carried out, or are simply unknown. A person is said to be infected with the virus for as long as it remains in their blood. The incubation period ranges from 2-21 days over which symptoms appear suddenly and can vary between cases. Many symptoms are mistaken for malaria and can include high fever, headache, joint pain, and both internal and external bleeding. In the later stages the symptoms worsen and can include haemorrhaging, purpura and petechia. Interior bleeding is said to be caused by the reaction between the virus and platelets. These platelets then cut cell-sized holes into the capillary walls. By the second week of infection, the fever will either lessen, or the patient will experience multi-organ failure. The cause of death is usually hypovolemic shock or multi-organ failure.

As Ebola is a virus, it does not replicate through cell division, rather it uses a host cell to multiply and assemble itself in the cell. For a virus to invade a host cell, there must be some sort of molecule on the surface of the host cell to be used as recognition for the virus. Such a molecule is called a receptor. The cell must possess that particular receptor for the virus to enter, otherwise the virus cannot invade. This comes to show that it is important for scientists to find out which receptor it is that the virus uses, as it can be used to help to develop a vaccine or other cure to prevent the virus from invading.

The development of a cure is desperately needed as mortality rates for the disease are very high. There is no specific licensed vaccine or other standard treatment. Since patients are usually dehydrated, doctors mainly work to replace electrolyte imbalance and maintain blood levels. At present, the development of effective and rapid-working vaccines is ongoing.

Glossary:

Carcass- The dead body of an animal

Electrolyte- The ionised parts of a living cell, blood, or other organic matter

Haemorrhage- An escape of blood from a ruptured blood vessel

Hypovolemic shock- An emergency condition in which severe blood and fluid loss make the heart unable to pump enough blood to the body

Incubation period- The period between exposure to an infection and the appearance of the first symptoms

Mortality rates- The number of deaths in a given area or period, or from a particular cause

Petechia- A small red or purple spot caused by bleeding to the skin

Platelets- A cell fragment found in large numbers in the blood which is involved in blood clotting

Purpura- A rash of purple sports on the skin caused by internal bleeding from small blood vessels

External links:

http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Ebola.aspx

https://www.bcm.edu/departments/molecular-virology-and-microbiology/ebola

Julia Edsparr October 28, 2014

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Science News

Sliding Spring Speeds past Mars

The comet Sliding Spring whizzed past the Red Planet last week at a speed of over 203,000 km/h, coming as close as 140,000 km—a proximity that is not only very rare for comets, but never before seen for Mars.

Not only has this allowed NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope to take some extraordinary composite images for us to gawk at (composite, because a single exposure would be problematic given the objects’ respective brightnesses (Mars is 10,000 times brighter than the comet), and their simultaneous motions), but it has also given scientists a once in a lifetime opportunity to study the comet without having to go to it. The rovers positioned on Mars were able to take pictures of the comet’s core, which could shed light on the beginnings of our solar system. Sliding Spring was formed at the same time of our solar system’s creation, thus making it a time capsule of sorts, revealing details about the conditions of the early solar system. This is an especially unique opportunity, given that this is Sliding Spring’s first journey from the Oort Cloud into the inner solar system, thus meaning it has never been heated by the Sun, and most likely looks very similar to how it did 4.6 billion years ago.

Julia Edsparr October 28, 2014

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Science News

Glowing Ice Cream

I’ll have one vanilla, one chocolate and one bioluminescent in a cone, please.

You’re puzzled? So am I. Charlie Francis, an ice cream entrepreneur, has gone almost as far as Willy Wonka with this glowing ice cream. The protein that gives jellyfish their bioluminescence was the inspiration for this product, and now, after much time and effort, has been engineered to react with the calcium in the ice cream and glow. And what’s more, is that it reacts faster in warmer temperatures and higher pH’s—both of which the tongue provides—causing this effect to heighten with every lick.

Julia Edsparr October 28, 2014

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Science News

Fire Ant Fabric

50% Cotton, 40% Polyester, 10% Fire ant?

Could fire ants be the new fabric on the market? Though probably not in the close future, their extraordinary traits are helping scientists come up with new materials.

While a single fire ant is not that remarkable, when hundreds, or even thousands, of them act together in emergencies, they can take on exceptional properties. For example, during floods (which can happen daily in the rainforest), the ants hook legs and mouths to create a living “material” which can then float for up to several weeks until the flood subsides. This “material” can also resist many forces, through the ants rearranging themselves, and then returning to their original position, as if rubber, allowing them to dodge obstacles, such as rocks.

Through coming up with equations to describe these movements, the team involved in this research is hoping to create self-arranging robots, which could access hard to reach spaces, or to create self-healing materials, which could repair themselves if there has been damage.

Claire Nicholson October 1, 2014

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Editor Newsletter

Claire Nicholson September 29, 2014

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Biology, Health, Science News

Our Battle Against Bacteria

For ages now we’ve been battling an increasing problem – all caused by antibiotics.

Antibiotics have dated all the way back to 1928 after Alexander Fleming; a bacteriologist discovered penicillin at London’s St Mary’s Hospital. Since then, such a small idea has grown and blossomed into the antibiotics we know today and has saved over 100 million lives.

Although this wonder drug has taken a nasty turn, but now as a result of overuse they’re no longer working – this golden age of medicine has well and truly come to an end. The National Risk Register now considers antibiotics one of the greatest risks facing us – in fact over 70% of the world’s bacteria have developed a resistance to antibiotics. We’re now using the drugs of last resort.

It’s really a global habit that’s caused a crisis, to many people’s surprise Greece is actually the worst performing country with 35.1m, the UK only has 18.8m*. Although the numbers vary hugely, it does demonstrate that our habit of overuse has caused this problem.

Although it’s not all bad news, we are on the quest for the next wonder drug – the Longitude Prize aims to solve this increasing problem. The public voted from challenges ranging from paralysis, water shortage and antibiotic resistance. The public has decided that the challenge for the Longitude Prize 2014 is antibiotic resistance.

The Longitude Prize marks the 300^th year anniversary of the Longitude Act. 300 years ago in 1714 the British Government set out a challenge to solve the greatest scientific mystery of the century – how to pinpoint a ship’s location at sea, just by knowing its longitude. This was the very first Longitude Prize. Over the past two years the Longitude Committee and Astronomer Royal Lord Martin Rees have brought together a team to bring the new prize to life and help identify some of the greatest challenges facing us today.

So, the challenge is to create a cheap, accurate, rapid and easy-to-use test kit for bacterial infections – all with a £10 million prize fund. The aim is to go one step further to solving the problem of antibacterial resistance, and cutting down on the huge problem of overuse.

You can get involved by checking out their website – http://www.longitudeprize.org/challenge/antibiotics. The Longitude Prize will last around 5 years– with research and clinical trials taking place and we’ll be blogging on it, keeping you to date with all the latest advances. The submissions open from later this Autumn , so why not be part of history?

*This represents the daily doses per 1,000 inhabitants per day – this data applies to prescriptions outside of hospitals (data taken from the Telegraph)

Lily July 29, 2014

altitude, altitude training, athletes, biology, coursework, Editors, elite, energy, energy drinks, exercise, health, ice baths, running, science, sports, sports and exercise science, sports performance 0

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Biology, Health, Medicine, Science News, YSJ

Is Altitude Training the best way to legally improve sporting performance?

Please follow the link below to view my Biology AS Coursework looking at the effectiveness of Altitude training on Elite Performers. Also explores the effectiveness of Performance Enhancing Energy Drinks and Ice Baths as a recovery method.

Is altitude training the best way to legally improve sporting performance?

Sansith Hewapathirana July 21, 2014

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Astronomy

Into Space without Rockets

Into Space without Rockets

Sansith Hewapathirana

Nunthorpe Academy, Middlesbrough

Abstract
In this so-called space age the current method of space travel, rockets, is hugely prohibitive in cost. There are several possible ways with which we can truly embark into space. Including space elevators, launch loops, and space guns. This paper aims to update you on possible methods of space travel, along with their advantages and disadvantages, which you may even use in the future.
Introduction

Rockets that could reach near space altitudes have existed since World War 2 and have been intensively developed since then. This is a great improvement from the steam powered rocket of Archytas (4th century BC) and the Chinese fireworks (7th century AD). From then on rockets have carried satellites well beyond Earth’s gravity and to the edge of the solar system.
We use rockets for anything concerning space or near space-like altitudes. This is because, at the moment they are our only contact to space (except for the space shuttle which has been taken out of use due to it costing more than anticipated). So far we have almost perfected the rocket design and have no significant improvements which can be made. We use the rockets for sending research probes into other planets and putting various satellites into orbit, for example communications satellites, weather satellites, space stations and research satellites (Hubble Space Telescope).
The methods of launching explored so far are rockets and the space shuttle, they have many disadvantages. The main ones being very high costs (approx. $22,000 per kg (1)), extremely large fuel consumption, and fuel storage problems (the fuel is either poisonous; or the oxidiser and fuel need temperatures close to 0 Kelvin). In using rockets and the space shuttle most of the expenditure is still in getting them out of Earth’s gravity. Because of their costs research is being done on alternative methods of getting into space. Some of them are launch loops, space guns, laser propulsion, and space elevators.
If research is done into non-rocket launch systems then the cost of going into space is significantly reduced. So projects that have been so far hindered by cost will have a chance to flower, such as space colonisation; space based solar power; and the terraforming of Mars.

Aim
My aim is finding more efficient and economic ways of sending payloads into space instead of chemical rockets.
Different methods of launching

Most of these methods are proposals and sometimes there are no existing materials suitable for them or the planning required are enormous.

1. Launch loops
It is a loop which is a 2000 km long from west to east and is 80 km high in the middle. It starts from the one end on ground level it is then inclined up to a height of 80 km and then goes straight for 2000 km and then inclines down to the ground again. It then bends around itself and goes along the track that it initially took to end up where it started and connects to where it started (see Fig. 1). Several of these structures have been proposed to be built in equatorial Pacific. The loop is a tube known as a sheath and inside the sheath is a rotor, the rotor is the size of a wire and is also in the same shape as the loop and it is suspended in the sheath without touching the sheath. The rotor is also made out of a magnetic substance (e.g. iron).
When the rotor is not moving the whole structure is lying on the ground. When the rotor is gradually accelerated the structur e lifts itself because of centripetal force. Wires are used to keep it in place. A constant power source is required to keep the structure in this way and more power is required to launch an object.
To launch an object it will be lifted to the westernmost point where it is 80km above ground, then the object will create an electromagnetic field. This will create eddy currents with the rotor which will both pull the object in the direction of the rotor and push it away from the rotor. When the object has reached the end of the 2000km track it would have reached escape velocity.
Some of the advantages about this is, that it can be made by materials available today; it can launch many launches per hour; it can reduce launch costs $300/kg to as low as $3/kg (2); it gives a safe amount of acceleration; and has a very low chance of getting hit by space debris. Some of the main disadvantages include the fact that no research has been made into the weather systems of the Equatorial Pacific that is detailed enough for this. It has stored, in the rotor, the same amount of energy as the Hiroshima nuclear bomb in kinetic energy (3). So heating effects from weather can cause the rotor or sheath to expand, this will cause slack which will mean that, unless it is accounted for, it could cause the rotor and sheath to touch and explode. Also, the sheath must be absolutely airtight, otherwise air will leak into the sheath and will melt the rotor through friction.
2. Space gun
A space gun is very literally a very large gun capable of shooting payloads into space. It is also featured in many early novels of getting into space including Jules Verne’s From the Earth to the Moon. In the Project HARP a U.S. Navy 410 mm 100 calibre gun was used to fire a 180 kg slug at 12,960 km/h, reaching an apogee of 180 km, hence performing a suborbital spaceflight. However, a space gun has never been successfully used to launch an object into orbit (4). Incidentally another object was shot into space using nuclear power during Operation Plumbob by the U.S. it was part of the Pascal-B nuclear test where a 900 kg steel plate cap was accidently blasted off the top of a test shaft at more than 66km/s. The cap was never found though extremely rough calculations say that it reached six times the escape velocity. However, it is widely believed that it burned up in the atmosphere (5). Unlike a rocket a projectile fired in this way would continuously lose energy so huge amounts of energy is required amounting to around 64000g (62762.56N/kg) (assuming that there is constant acceleration which there isn’t so this is widely underestimated) to reach escape velocity with a muzzle of 100m (5). So to make it tolerable for humans (12.8g max.) a gun barrel of 500 km is required. This is not as simple as making the barrel longer because more and more problems are encountered.
One of the first problems you encounter is the fact that the air in front of the barrel cannot get out of the way, this can be solved by making it a vacuum with a seal on the top which is weak enough for the projectile to go through or lifting the barrel so much that there is very little atmosphere itself, each of them with their own problems. Another problem is that the propellants themselves cannot accelerate the projectile beyond the speed of sound. However, a light gas gun could be used to make the upper limit for acceleration much higher. The acceleration is not constant because the pressure drops. This could be remedied through timed explosions along the barrel and keeping the pressure high. Another way in which the pressure can be kept high is by making the projectile the shape of a ramjet and filling the barrel with fuel (5). Another disadvantage is that it will have to deal with re-entry style heat and friction on the ascent. This means that there will be severe energy losses on ascent and it would also mean that the trajectory would be difficult to control. One other disadvantage is that the only orbit that would not involve crashing into Earth or reaching escape velocity would be something that would essentially hit the launchers in the back. The only way this can be avoided is only when there is an active payload (rockets).
The main advantage for this is that small scale demonstrations of this have already been made, for example Project HARP, Project Babylon, and Project SHARP. Additionally, if it is made then it can produce a very cheap form of space travel. However unless the barrel is a few hundred kilometres long it can only be suitable for specially adapted spaceships and fuel.
3. Laser propulsion
Laser propulsion involves a very high powered laser and specially designed crafts. It was first formally introduced by Arthur Kantrowitz in 1972 (6). There are several different ways in which energy can be transferred to the craft, through pressure from the radiation or by using the laser to burn some form of propellant. The last method is the only one possible to launch the object.
Most of the different methods involve a pulsed or continuous laser to shine on a parabolic mirror on the rear of the craft which focuses the beam on a gas or a solid which explodes. A model craft (known as the Lightcraft) uses this technique to heat air and has reached a record height of 72 metres (236ft) (6); Howstuffworks (7) says 71metres (233ft)).Using this technique a megawatt laser could put a one kilogram satellite into orbit.
The other methods use a heat exchanger and a generator to convert the energy from the lasers into electrical energy which will power some form of propulsion, for example using the electricity to push plasma out of the rear.
Models of this technique have already been tested (Lightcraft), so it is quite advanced as a technology. If this technology is developed it could significantly reduce travel costs. It would also mean that, because most of the equipment is on the ground, there would be a lot more room inside the ‘rocket’. If a system of satellites is built, which can convert energy from the sun to high energy laser beams, then, not only interplanetary travel but interstellar travel as well will be possible. However building such a fleet would be enormously costly and the technology to build lasers that powerful though exists are also expensive and very power-hungry. Although the developments of lasers can make them very available building a space port for this would still cost a lot head-on.
4. Space elevator
Space elevators are tether like structures where there is an extremely long (taller than geostationary orbit) ribbon made out of, possibly, carbon nanotubes. The carbon nanotubes will be braided into a rope and coiled and sent up in a satellite; the satellite will then uncoil it, while keeping the centre of gravity on or just above geostationary orbit. When the cable has gone down far enough other craft will clamp onto it and pull it down to a base (probably in the sea). The end result will be an extremely long rope made of carbon nanotubes extending above geostationary orbit and pulled taut with a counter-weight made up of a captured asteroid or the space craft that took it into orbit in the first place.
Space elevators have huge advantages. For example it can send and bring all types of cargo with very little energy spent. This is because the energy is used to send the craft into space would be gained when that craft is brought back to Earth. This design is by far the most permanent link to space and would be crucial in colonizing space. Once built it would make travel to space very cheap ($220 to $880 per kg (8) The estimated costs for it to be built are $6 billion and one space shuttle flight costs 500 million, so it is within our scope. It will take a lot longer to go into space but the forces would be much more tolerable for a much wider amount of people. However, there is no known material strong enough that can support its own weight over such large distances. Theoretically though carbon nanotubes are strong enough as they have a theoretical tensile strength of 300GPa but the current maximum is 120GPa. The minimum estimated requirement of tensile strength needed is 130GPa. Another candidate is Boron Nitride. The tests are on strips of carbon nanotubes a few nanometres long and so far nothing has been built which can even compare to a space elevator. Vibrations from the sun and moon; climbers; weather; and meteoroids along the space elevator could literally split it open.
Building one on Earth can be very hard because of many factors like earthquakes, fluctuations in gravity and space junk which can have devastating effects on the cable and cause whip like motions or cause the cable to split. It will also require huge amounts of planning and funding. It also needs to be on the equator but many countries on the equator have political problems and the most powerful countries would not like to hand over all power to a small country.

Discussion
Because of their prohibitive costs rockets are on the decline. Less and less rockets are sent out but each one of them is crammed with as many satellites as possible. Research is been made to find a method that significantly reduces these costs and open space up for everyone not just governments.
Space elevators make the most permanent link to space, and have the potential to make a trip to the moon as common as a holiday to Spain. However, building one on Earth with our current technology is out of the question, for we don’t have any material that is even remotely strong enough or the tapering required is so great that it is impractical. Even if it is completed then there will be some major complications to consider. For example, space debris and meteoroids may collide with the space elevator and destroy it. So some type of method that actively destroys space junk needs to be introduced and made and the space around Earth completely cleared of space junk before building a space elevator can be considered. Vibrations that can occur from the gravity of the sun, moon and other planets may produce whiplash movements which could be dangerous for both itself and anyone on it. There are also some political problems with this. A space elevator is a very easy target for a terrorist for you cannot expect there to be a very high security along the entire elevator because it is so big. One other political problem is the placing of the space elevator. Many of the most powerful countries are nowhere near the equator and are unlikely to give the power of controlling all space travel to any other country. So it very likely that it would be built in the middle of the ocean (probably the Pacific).
Of all the technologies looked at so far space guns are the most developed. They can form a very cheap form of transport. However, the ‘bullet’ must have an active component (something that directly changes the orbit of the ‘bullet’) if it is to achieve a stable orbit. This is explained by Isaac Newton in his book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica which explains the three possible orbits that can be achieved from his example: cannon shooting a cannonball. The three possible orbits are: 1) the cannonball falls onto the Earth; 2) the cannonball makes an orbit and essentially hits the cannoneers in the back; and 3) the cannonball reaches escape velocity and shoots out of Earth’s gravitational field. It is very likely that the space gun will be restricted to fuel and specially adapted spacecraft because the acceleration would be too high for humans to survive. The only way that humans can travel on it is when the ‘gun’ is a few thousand kilometres long. Extending the barrel however will not solve this for the pressure behind the ‘bullet’ drops so the acceleration is not constant. So, even more imaginative methods must be used. For example the blast wave accelerator in which the ‘bullet’ has a tapered end and a series of sequenced explosions push against this and keep the acceleration high; another method to keep the acceleration high is filling the barrel with a combustible mixture and making the projectile the shape of a ramjet. another problem with long barrels is that the air in front of the ‘bullet’ does not have time to get out of the way so the methods proposed that would solve this involve either a gun barrel so long that it ends several kilometres high in the air where there is practically no atmosphere; or having a cover on the nozzle of the barrel that is strong enough to stop the atmosphere getting in yet weak enough for the projectile to get through.
Launch loops can send a large volume of materials into space (estimates are for it to be able to launch up to 6 million tons per year (2). It can also dramatically reduce costs to maybe as low as $300 to $3 per kg (2). It also has a much higher launch rate than any conventional rocket. However, it requires high precision control of the rotor because if the rotor touches the sheath at any point this will cause a release of 1.5 petajoules of energy roughly equivalent to a detonation of a nuclear bomb. Weather effects can cause it to heat up and cause slack, this slack has to be then accounted for otherwise it could touch the sheath and explode.
Laser propulsion can not only make travel to the planets seem feasible but also makes interstellar travel likely. It can also revolutionise aircraft. The main problem is the fact that lasers powerful enough to send a manned mission are, at the moment, very expensive (the rule of thumb is that it takes a 1MW laser to send 1kg into low Earth orbit) and needs a lot of electrical energy. However, running costs, compared to traditional chemical rockets, are much lower. To use this method for interplanetary travel having all the lasers based on Earth is not feasible. So an array of satellites which convert sunlight into lasers and then direct them to the satellites will be needed.

Conclusion

Of all the methods I’ve discussed, it seems that, so far space guns are the most readily available. I also think that an alternative to traditional rockets must also be readily available so space guns should be incorporated in our design of non-rocket launching until a time where a more efficient method becomes readily available. Although space guns cannot participate in sending humans they can send huge volumes of raw materials into space this way space manufactories which will build many instruments too delicate to survive the trip to space may be built. Shipping the raw materials with low costs will mean that projects such space colonies and the colonization of Mars may have a chance to blossom.
Because sending projectiles into low Earth orbit is impossible with just a space gun, I propose that laser propulsion to be used to alter the trajectory and deliver the projectiles back to Earth.
Whatever the type of space port created they must be as close to the equator as it is possible and send projectiles in an easterly direction. This way as much velocity as possible is gained through the earth’s rotation.
As a fuel electricity could be used as it is highly versatile and can be generated in a number of different ways. The space gun could be a light gas gun with a ram-jet shaped projectile which will combust specially tuned gas mixtures in the gun barrel to reach as high a velocity that is possible.
References
1. Bonsor, K. (6 October 2000) How Space Elevators Will Work [Online]. HowStuffWorks.com. Available at http://science.howstuffworks.com/space-elevator.htm
2. Wikipedia (2013) Launch loop [Online], 7 March 2013. Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_loop
3. Launch Loops: A viable alternative to space elevators?, May 2012. Available at http://forum.kerbalspaceprogram.com/showthread.php/33030-Launch-Loops-A-viable-alternative-to-space-elevators
4. Wikipedia (2013) Space gun [Online], 3 May 2013. Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_gun
5. Condliffe, J. (11 January 2013) The Science of Building a Space Gun [Online]. Gizmodo.com. available at http://gizmodo.com/5975097/the-science-of-building-a-space-gun
6. Wikipedia (2013) Lightcraft [Online], 7 December 2013. Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightcraft
7. Bonsor, K. (09 February 2001) How Light Propulsion Will Work [Online]. HowStuffWorks.com. Available at http://science.howstuffworks.com/light-propulsion.htm
8. Wikipedia (2013) Space elevator [Online], 4 July 2013. Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_elevator

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Mr P Wilson for his encouragement and advice throughout the project and also the Nunthorpe Academy for giving me this opportunity.

SyedMShuaib July 12, 2014

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Ethics, Health, Medicine, YSJ

What are the current treatments of schizophrenia?

What are the current treatments of schizophrenia?

Abstract

I discuss the available treatments for schizophrenia. I comment upon the socio-economic issues arising from living with schizophrenia and the aforementioned treatments. I examine a case study in management of schizophrenia in the NHS. Furthermore, I evaluate two alternative methods to control schizophrenia – one holistic and the other supplementary to a more rigorous regimen. I discuss the impact of schizophrenia on other individuals; especially close family members, as well as wider society. Moreover, the article scrutinizes different antipsychotic drugs and their chemical composition. Finally, I comment upon the validity of two different sources I have used in the creation of this article.

Introduction

Schizophrenia is a mental condition. It is characterised by positive and negative symptoms, where positive symptoms are where there is a shift in disposition, such as hallucinations and delusions, or negative symptoms, where there is dampened emotional and social function, which can manifest itself as ennui or lack of emotion ₁. The condition usually manifests itself in adolescence, where it is frequently misdiagnosed as angst or hormonal imbalance. Schizophrenia, like other mental disorders, is expressed in episodes, whereby the intensity of the symptoms increases with the onset of an episode and a regression to the mean when there is no episode; this is the most common form of schizophrenia, and is known as acute schizophrenia ₂. The causes of schizophrenia are currently not known, but the key risk factors identified are genetics; brain development; disparity of dopamine and serotonin and birth complications ₁₁. The condition, however can remain dormant until triggers, such as substance abuse and stress ₁₁, can lead to development of schizophrenia.

Hallucinations, a positive symptom, are sensations that an individual experiences which are not the result of external stimulation. These hallucinations can involve perception of any of the senses, but it is reported that hearing is the most common at 50% of cases ₃₅.

Delusions, a positive symptom, are misapprehensions of situations or incorrect assertions ₄. These come often as a result of trying to explain recurring hallucinations. These beliefs are immovable and the subject demonstrates absolute faith in the validity of their explanation _5.

A negative symptom of schizophrenia is blunted affect, whereby the subject shows little or no emotion, especially when there is a call for emotional response e.g. social interaction. This lack of emotion can manifest itself as physical and verbal ₆.Another negative symptom is anhedonia, or an inability to feel pleasure from typical acts e.g. hobbies, sports and relationships. Subjects often cite feeling “emotionally empty” ₇. Of all symptoms of schizophrenia, negative symptoms and, more specifically, symptoms that degrade quality of life, are quoted as being most debilitating to subjects ₈.

Public perceptions of schizophrenia range from personal experience of looking after family members with the condition, to ignorance of the condition. It is reported by “Only 25 per cent agreed with the statement that “most women who were once patients in a mental hospital can be trusted as babysitters””₉. Furthermore, it is suggested that only “34%” of participants in another study acknowledged schizophrenia as a mental condition ₈.

Schizophrenia is becoming a major issue in the world. The World Health Organisation states that, globally, “24 million people” suffer from schizophrenia and “90% of people with untreated schizophrenia are in developing countries” ₁₂. From 2001 to 2009, abuse of hallucinogens has increased from 8.2% to 9.3% of 16-59 year olds in England and Wales ₁₃.

Case Study: Care Programme Approach (CPA) – The current solution used by the National Health Service, United Kingdom

A current treatment is to implement a Care Programme Approach (CPA). This is a plan based on four steps ₁₄:

Assessment – The holistic requirements of the subject are mapped.
Care Plan – Based upon the findings of the assessment, you are assigned a plan to address your condition.
Appointment of a care co-ordinator – You are allocated a keyworker, who is a social worker or nurse, who will oversee your care plan.
Review – Throughout recovery, your progress will be reviewed and the care plan will be adjusted to optimise recovery.

This is a holistic approach to treating schizophrenia, as it affects the mental, physical, emotional and social wellbeing of the subject. Thus, each step in the process addresses each facet of schizophrenia and the subject. As schizophrenia is highly specialised in effect of symptoms on each subject, the CPA is personalised to each subject who presents with schizophrenia to the NHS.

In terms of treating the initial mental side of schizophrenia, antipsychotic drugs are most effective. Antipsychotic drugs manage psychosis (aberrations of the mind) by reducing the severity of the symptoms, such as hallucinations and delusions ₁₅.

There are two types of antipsychotic drugs based upon when they were discovered: typical (also known as first-generation) antipsychotic drugs which were developed in the 1950s ₁₆, and atypical (also known as second-generation) antipsychotic drugs which came later in the 1970s ₁₇. Both types of drugs stop the flow of dopamine in the brain. Atypical drugs also target serotonin receptors in the brain ₁₈.

Typical antipsychotic drugs can be sorted into five categories:

Butyrophenones e.g. Moperone. These compounds have phenyl-1-butanone ₁₉.
Diphenylbutylpiperidine e.g. Pimozide. These compounds inhibit contractions of rat vas deferens that are dependent on concentrations of potassium and calcium at “40-350nM” ₂₀.
Phenothiazines e.g. Pipotiazine. These compounds inhibit dopamine-based communication in the brain by inhibiting receptors ₂₂.
Thioxanthenes e.g. Tiotixene. These compounds work by dampening the D₂receptors in the brain, thereby stopping psychosis from taking hold of the brain ₂₃.
Others e.g. Loxapine. These compounds work in a similar manner to Thioxanthenes, except Loxapine has chlorine, nitrogen and oxygen instead ₂₄.
There are various risks associated with dosages of first-generation antipsychotics. The most common are cramps, dry mouth and weight gain 2₅. More serious adverse side effects are Tardive dyskinesia, which causes slow but constant involuntary muscle movement ₂₆and Neuroleptic malignant syndrome, which causes delirium and muscle rigidity, and can be fatal ₂₇.

Atypical antipsychotics cannot be categorised, but the most common are:

Clozapine (Clozaril) – This is widely regarded as the most effective atypical antipsychotic ₂₈. It is given as a last resort, when other drugs have not been successful ₂₉. It works by inhibiting the D₁, D₂ and D₃ receptors ₃₀. However, it has a high binding profile with the 5-HT_SAreceptor, which is used in serotonin transmission ₃₀, so dosages to the subject are low (between 10-50 mg) ₃₁.
Risperdal – This is also a widely popular drug to use. It is generally used in acute schizophrenia ₃₂. Compared to Clozapine, it has a more benign binding profile, but still having a high binding profile with the 5-HT_SAreceptor ₃₀. It is not as efficacious as Clozapine ₃₃.
Seroquel (quetiapine) – This is a relatively new drug ₃₄. It has fewer side-effects of a lower severity than the other atypical antipsychotics, with drowsiness being the most common ₃₄. It inhibits dopamine and serotonin levels in the brain ₃₅. It is used only on subjects over the age of 13 ₃₆. It has the same binding profile as Risperdal ₃₀.

To treat the social effects of schizophrenia, the CPA calls for the instating a community mental health team (CMHT) to each subject. This team is made up of professionals from a wide background of care fields. They would include social workers, pharmacists, counsellors and psychiatrists ₁₄. The subject will meet with the various members of the CMHT and discuss how they are progressing on with their life and address any misgivings towards their condition. In the most acute of cases, a crisis resolution team (CRT) will take over treatment of the subject at their home and plan to reduce the risk of another crisis occurring. If necessary, detention of the subject in a psychiatric ward will be prescribed.

Implications

Ethical: Compulsory Detention

Sometimes, it is required for the good health of the patient that they are hospitalised in a psychiatric ward. This is done in the interests of the patient. Schizophrenia, especially in the paranoid sub-type, can be very destructive to the subject and their surroundings. This can cause harm to themselves and others, evidenced by recent high-profile murders of people, where the murderer suffered from paranoid schizophrenia ₃₇, and fictional books where the pivotal characters are sufferers of schizophrenia or carers of sufferers ₃₈. Furthermore, the adequate medical needs may only be supplied by a psychiatric ward, so, to maintain an acceptable quality of life, the subject may need to reside in a hospital.

One can also make the case for the Hippocratic right of the patient to self-control over how they proceed in their treatment. Under normal circumstances, when the patient is mentally competent, the doctors would make the most medically sensible decision and present it to the patient. This model, however, does not work when the patient, as with more severe forms of schizophrenia, is not mentally competent to understand fully the treatment option being proposed to them. In conventional wisdom, the decision of the progression of treatment therefore lies with the doctors and wider CPA team. It is difficult to ascertain the true intentions of the patient under these conditions, so the decision is made in full awareness of what is best for the patient. Furthermore, the family of the subject may be brought in to give a more personal account of what the subject may want for themselves. This alternate mode, however, is never an equal substitute for the intentions of the patient themselves, so care and attention must be used in judging when the patient is no longer competent to independently make decisions about their treatment.

It can be argued, however that, especially in the case of compulsory detention, this is being done against the wishes of the subject; whom may wish to live with their family or in their local community. Moreover there is pressure upon the NHS in terms of the low numbers of beds, especially when in the flu season, so, if possible, all subjects should be treated in the community rather than in a highly subscribed hospital ₃₉. Additionally, the subject may also pose a risk to other patients on the ward. This can be damaging to the hospital.

In conclusion, I think we should restrain subjects whose schizophrenia is particularly acute, so they pose less of a danger to themselves and others in the community.

Social: Schizophrenics in the community

Schizophrenics in the community can physically dispel common myths about schizophrenia. Just by observing a schizophrenic in their daily life, many can draw parallels with their own lives. It is also good for the subject, who experiences social interaction and becomes less daunted by it. Moreover, the subject is with his family and friends in the community so will be less burdened by having to live a normal life.

On the other hand, the subject may, from negative symptoms, prefer to be in solitude. This does not improve the subject’s social interaction. Also, the community may shun the subject due to perceived difficulties with dealing with the subject, thus depressing the subject further. Likewise, the subject may pose a real threat to the community, particularly if they possess paranoid schizophrenia, so it may be in the greater utilitarian interest of the community to keep away from the subject.

In conclusion, I think that, if the ability is there and it is safe, the subject should be integrated into the community. This will improve the subject’s ability to cope with social interaction, which aids their recovery.

Implications to other humans

Benefits

Others will have their myths about schizophrenia dispelled. This will mean that the image of schizophrenia will improve from the viewpoint that many have, of dangerous individuals who eschew society and are recluses. Also, through helping people with schizophrenia, people gain a broader view of life for different people. Mental health charities like SMART offer people the opportunity to volunteer and help schizophrenics, which contribute to a better quality of life for both the volunteer and subject.

Due to our current understanding of the symptoms of schizophrenia, the medical establishment has progressed to level where treatment of schizophrenia is successful in the majority of cases. Throughout treatment, the social skills of the subject will gradually improve. This allows them to start living a more normal and socially healthy life. If the subject had a job, they will eventually be able to return to it. This benefits the local economy. The improvement in the social activity of the subject also benefits his family relations. The subject will be able to normalise their relations with the family, which in turn leads to a more stable life. This is better for the family of the subject as they can begin to repair the inevitable damage that a schizophrenic family member would have had on family relations. This leads to a more harmonious relationship and a more fulfilling relationship for the rest of the family with the subject. Moreover, with the friends of the subject, the development of the social skills of the subject will improve relations with the subject. This will also help improve the relations of the subject and the friends. The friends will have a more gratifying time in the company of the subject and will boost their general happiness.

Risks

There have been cases of paranoid schizophrenics murdering people. These cases are very high-profile and so people are exposed to them, whenever they happen. This inflates the risk factor of it happening with any schizophrenic, when the statistics point otherwise. Only “5 to 10%” of schizophrenics engage in any violence ₄₀. Most of this violence is directed towards themselves, and the suicide rate amongst schizophrenics is 4% ₄₁. Mental health is a stigmatised and even taboo topic. Those with mental health issues are often shunned by other people, as they hold biased predispositions of mental people as uncontrollable, violent and emotionless. This attitude stems from media publication of extreme stories about paranoid schizophrenia ₅₉. This also occurs as people generally have very little exposure to people with schizophrenia, the majority of whom are people who can lead normal social lives.

Antipsychotic drugs have side effects. These include parkinsonism and akathisia ₅₇. These side effects impact upon the social life of the subject with his immediate family and friends, as well as wider society, as the subject will have less social control over themselves. People will be less comfortable being around them and this results more distress for the family and friends, as they feel as though the subject is slipping away. This feeling is compounded if more severe side effects, such as pancreatitis ₅₈ or myocardial infarction ₅₇, are felt as the subject will be hospitalised and will cause more distress to the subject, as they are very ill.

The placebo effect in schizophrenia is more pronounced than in other conditions _{60, 61}. This is most noticable when second generation antipsychotic drugs are used. Thus, there is a risk of overprescription of the medication, which could lead to severe side effects. This can increase the burden placed on the people around the subject as they witness the side effects in action.

Alternative Solutions

Soteria

Soteria is a service which focuses on the providing a calm environment for the subject. It is a civic service, which, instead of using conventional medicine, gives them a space to exercise their freedom ₄₂. Loren Mosher M.D, the founder of Soteria, started it because he became aware of large proportions of patients required “love and food and understanding, not drugs” ₄₅. Thus, he began an experiment whereby he gave patients autonomy over their care, and compared his results against conventional antipsychotic drugs. The results showed that, for early-stage acute schizophrenia, Soteria was a better treatment than antipsychotic drugs ₄₆.

Soteria relies upon techniques pioneered in Eastern medicine of harmony between man and nature. It uses methods such as yoga and acupuncture to relax the individual. This is done to reduce the severity of the symptoms, such as delusions and hallucinations. This is also achieved through a calm and relaxing environment. The buildings are minimalist, with white walls and little colour to reduce the stimulation of the mind. Other techniques, such as music and art therapy, are used in conjunction with the Eastern methods to relax the mind as much as possible. This is done for up to 3 weeks.

Soteria is utilised by mainstream patients as either an early intervention to prevent more acute episodes of psychosis and mental distress later in the intervention, or as a crisis resolution method for people who are not responding adequately to mainstream antipsychotic treatment. It follows the support recovery model of empowerment of the subject. Soteria is usually used by younger patients (<30 years old). Psychosis, instead than being seen as a biomedical issue, is seen rather as an acute personal crisis of the individual and thus Soteria aims to resolve these using treatments less dependent on medication, as this can distress the subject.

Supplements

It has been noted that people with mental disorders have sharp deficiencies in some vitamins, for example Vitamin D. Also, glycine, an amino acid, has been found to be in short supply in people with mental disorders. Fish oil has been touted as an effective supplement, but this is based solely upon anecdotal evidence, with no studies carried out into the efficacy of it in respect to treating schizophrenia ₆₈.

Glycine improves the efficiency of NMDA receptors in the brain, along with glutamate. It is though that if the glutamate in the brain were to be a better neurotransmitter, it would alleviate some of the symptoms of schizophrenia ₄₇.Glycine is an amino acid which has been researched to alleviate the negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

Another supplement that has been used is DHEA. DHEA stands for Dehydroepiandrosterone is hormone which is secreted naturally by the brain and adrenal glands. It is used to reduce the severity of depression and other negative symptoms ₆₆. The use of DHEA, however, has been cautioned by many health organisations _{66, 67} as DHEA can interact very readily with other chemicals in the brain, such as anastrozole and insulin ₆₇. If used, it is recommended to use 7-keto-DHEA, a by-product of DHEA which is not converted to steroid hormones such as oestrogen ₆₇. It is also recommended to take DHEA under a rigourously planned regimen from your doctor.

Lithium is also used as a supplement. It is primarily used a mood stabilising drug. Lithium in the brain stimulates the production of serotonin. It is especially favoured as, when ingested, spreads widely throughout the nervous system, thus providing a more holistic effect than just on the brain. It is generally accepted that lithium is best used to treat mania, though it is also useful in depression ₆₉. It has also been noticed that lithium decreases the suicide risk of schizophrenics ₇₀. Lithium is generally used as early as possible in schizophrenia, as it is most effective when the symptoms are less severe. Lithium interacts with many other chemicals and medication such as antidepressants and dextromethorphan ₆₉, so should be consumed carefully under guidance.

Inositol is a compound that is found in eukaryotic cells or can be synthesised in the laboratory. It is used to treat negative symptoms of schizophrenia, such as depression. It is believed to work by balancing chemical compositions in the brain to optimum levels ₇₁. This reduces the severity of negative symptoms. Inositol is taken within 4 week cycles, as this is when it produces optimum results ₇₁.

Evaluation of sources

Source 2

http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Schizophrenia/Pages/Symptoms.aspx
Last updated 17/09/12

I believe that the NHS website is a very reliable source. Being the national provider of health in the UK, the NHS aims to educate the public on matters of health. Thus, to do so, it requires professionals in the medical field to check information posted on the website are accurate. The NHS is a reputable source of information on medical matters. Also, the page was updated in 2012, which is only one-and-a-half years ago. Medical knowledge is unlikely to have expanded widely in that timeframe, so the information is accurate. The target audience of the website is the general population, so thus the content must reflect this; namely the simplicity of the language and ease of use. The information conveyed is simple. This is done so that people with limited understanding of medical concepts can grasp the premise of the idea. As the NHS is the outlet for medical information for the national population, it must remain up-to-date with the most recent advances in treatment and illness. As progress in different parts of medicine, such as healthy living and chronic diseases, moves at a rapid pace, the information on the NHS website must be updated as such. The editorial policy of the NHS Choices website ₇₂ states that edits made to the text are made by “doctors” and “National charities with a recognised expertise and specialist interest”. Thus, we can be sure that the information posted on the website is reliable as it from trusted academic sources.

Source 25

Tyrer, Peter; Kendall, Tim (2009). “The spurious advance of antipsychotic drug therapy”. The Lancet 373 (9657): 4–5. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61765-1. PMID 19058841.
Publisher: Lancet
Published: 05 December 2008

I believe that this paper is an accurate source of information. It was published in the Lancet, a reputable peer-reviewed magazine of topics in science. Professor Peter Tyrer is a Professor of Community Psychiatry at Imperial College London, whilst Professor Tim Kendall is a Professor of English at the University of Exeter. Both looked at the community and medical side of antipsychotic medicine and both are experts in their field, with Professor Tyrer the Founder President of the British & Irish Group for the Study of Personality Disorders.

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Claire Nicholson July 11, 2014

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To infinity and beyond!!

A trip into space can be yours for $250,000 USD. It may sound a little science fiction, but it’s soon to become science fact. Over 700 astronauts have already booked their place on board Virgin’s next project: Virgin Galactic – furthering the space frontier. Once you’re confirmed you become one of the selected few to visit Necker Island with Sir Richard Branson, that’s after you’ve completed g-force training. You could be treated with one of the select few – normal, everyday people to go into space. In 2023, the Mars One mission will send its first ever manned spacecraft along the 8 month journey to the Red Planet – 4 normal people from four separate continents out of more than 200,000 first time applicants. They’ll leave Earth without the promise of a return ticket – quite literally travelling into the unknown.

I’ve been doing a Gold CREST Award communicating space and space travel to predominantly teenagers. This led to Space Week that started on the 30^th June. I began Space Week by organising three talks from Professor Carolin Crawford, who is a Professor of Astronomy at Gresham College in London. In 2009 her outstanding science communication abilities were recognised when she received the “Women of Outstanding Achievement Award” by the UK Resource Centre for women in science. She spoke to a year 8, 10 and 12 group on Saturn, The Red Planet – Mars and the Age of the Universe.

I also taught two year 7 lessons covering the history and future of space travel – the impact it will have on your lives and your children’s. They started learning about the space race, where I had them making straw rockets – which I think they found great fun!! On the second lesson they learnt about the present of space travel; even designing a meal for British astronaut Tim Peake to eat on board the ISS (The international Space Station). We then talked about the prospects of life on Mars and the Mars one mission – aiming to put a human colony on Mars. By the end of the lesson I convinced about half of the group that they would want to live on Mars – although the prospect of free Wi-Fi was a huge incentive!

Throughout the week I ran a competition to design an astronaut’s suit fit for life on Mars. All the entries that I received were amazing – creative and extremely well researched. Congratulations to the winner, who had a portable drinks machine attached to her astronauts suit and radars to receive warnings from Earth!

To end the week I released an eBook; “Science Bites: A Short Tour of the Universe” for £1.51. All the proceeds are going to Keech Hospices. I’ve sold around 130 copies so far so please download it and leave feedback! Overall I think it was a great week, hopefully I’ve managed to convince a couple of people to change their mind about science and get them interested in space travel.

ZahraHanif July 10, 2014

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Get to know me – Zahra Hanif

You’re probably reading this post because you want to know more about me, about what I’m going to blog about, or are just genuinely intrigued. Either way, let me introduce myself to you.
My name is Zahra Hanif and I am 16 years old. I am currently studying AS-levels at Rochdale Sixth Form College where I study Biology, Chemistry, Psychology and Mathematics. I’ve just completed my exams for this year, and about to break up for summer and a well-deserved break.

When I say break, it may not be what you’re thinking. In fact, I was lucky enough to be given a placement opportunity to study Microbiology under the supervision of a professor, and undertake a research project. Up until summer, I am doing background reading on Clinical Microbiology, as part of my preparation.

My studying interests mainly lie in Biology and Chemistry, where I have undertaken a number of enrichment and extra-curricular activities within and out of college, because of my general interests. These include Chemistry Olympiad, The Honours Programme, and the Manchester Access Programme.
So with all this going on, you’re probably wondering why I’m blogging. Apart from the experience I’m gaining, science communication is important to me because it has benefited me in my studies and beyond. Let me give you an example.

In college last week, a group of students including myself were selected to take part in the Extended Project Qualification, or EPQ. As part of EPQ, each student is required to pick a question from a field of their choice that they will research and attempt to answer in the form of a scientific report and presentation. The question has to be specific enough to analyse in-depth and cover topics at a minimum of A2 level. Whilst many students have no idea on where to start, or what subject they would be interested in, I can rely on my past reading of scientific articles to quickly narrow down my choices. For instance, say I was to research on eye and vision sciences, I know I would prefer to research on human myopia than visual instrumentation.

It is in this way that science communication can help a person to gain wider insight into topics beyond any school curriculum. The knowledge of real-life applications of science is just as important as its content, which is why I’d like to encourage it and provide an opportunity from where you can expand your knowledge, in terms of science.

So, I hoped you found this first post interesting and you can be sure that there’s more to come. I will try my best to post as much as possible, working around my studies.

If there are any questions about anything that I mentioned here, or anything else you want to know, please feel free to either leave a comment or email me on [email protected] I will try to reply to as many of you as possible.

FrancescaB July 6, 2014

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Introduction

Hello all, I am a new Editor here for YSJ and would like to introduce myself.

I am currently a third year chemistry student at the University of Edinburgh. I am really enjoying being a student in Edinburgh as there are always lots of different things going on there – which I get to join in with when I am having a break from studying and writing lab reports etc.!

About a year ago I became a STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) Ambassador – where I have joined in with some science communication events. I volunteered with a secondary school on a weekly basis, and helped out in some of the first and second year science classes – where I hopefully inspired more young people to follow science further! Also, I recently helped out at the Edinburgh International Science Festival and got to meet the broad range of people who enjoy science.

As you can probably guess, I think science communication is of great importance and so this journal is a fantastic thing for both the people involved in its creation and its audience. In my blog here I hope to talk about some of the STEM activities that I have been doing.

Claire Nicholson July 3, 2014

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Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry

Science Bites

For a few months now, I’ve been working on my eBook – Science Bites. Tomorrow it reaches the Amazon Kindle Store for £1.51. The idea behind the eBook was to make science fun and interesting – by using small, manageable pieces of information. The eBook is about 180 pages long and covers topics from life beyond Earth to life on Earth. The thing that’s different with this eBook, is that it’s a charity eBook. 100% of the profits will go to Keech Hospices – which is about 50p from each book sold. Hopefully the eBook gets the public looking at science in a different perspective. I’d absolutely love the eBook to reach the Kindle bestsellers – so spread the word!

Julia Edsparr June 27, 2014

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Science News

Neanderthals liked their veg

50,000-year-old fossilised feces have given evidence that the Neanderthals’ diets may have some presence in plants.As study at El Salt showed that all fecal samples found at an archaeological site in Alicante, Spain, which the Neanderthals occupied between 60,000 and 45,000 years ago, indicated that the Neanderthals ate animals.This was ascertained through the presence of the lipid coprostanol, which is created when the body metabolises cholesterol, a molecule found in animals. However, two of the samples also contained a chemical (5B-stigmastonal) that breaks down phytosterol, a molecule produced in plants. This provides convincing evidence that our predecesors’ cousins may have had an omnivorous diet, especially when considered with the other mounting evidence, including microfossils of plants (e.g. date palms and legumes) stuck in Neanderthal teeth.

However, at the same time, there are many in the scientific world who remain doubtful about the results. They point out that not only do we not know that this is, in fact, human waste, but we also do not know enough about the profile of the chemicals left, and how they degrade over time.

Julia Edsparr June 19, 2014

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Science News

Tomatoes combat cancer

Tomatoes and other lycopene-containing fruit and vegetables have been shown to lower the risk of renal cancer in women. The study looked at over 90,000 women throughout the last 20 years, where the amounts of different vitamins and nutrients were estimated from the data provided in the questionnaires on their diets and supplement use.

Throughout the period approximately 400 women were diagnosed with the disease, but after evaluating a number of different vitamins and nutrients, only lycopene (the antioxidant which gives tomatoes, watermelon and papaya its reddish colour) was shown to have any relationship with the occurrence of the disease.

The conclusion was that those women who ate the highest amounts of lycopene had a 45% lower risk of kidney cancer than those who ate the lowest amounts. So there’s yet another reason to pick up some watermelon for the summer!

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To infinity and beyond!!

Get to know me – Zahra Hanif

Introduction

Science Bites

Neanderthals liked their veg

Tomatoes combat cancer

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